eChapters

The first buffalo AI progeny is reported at Allahabad in August 1943. Although AI is commonly used as a tool of breeding in buffaloes and complaints have appended that conception rate is not satisfactory. There are differences in the anatomy of the sexual organs, sexual physiology and general breeding behaviour that have to be known and taken into consideration when the same technique of AI used in cattle is applied in buffalo breeding. It explains the lower semen production capacity of male buffaloes compared to the cattle bulls. The buffalo bull’s penis is shorter and thinner than penis of the cattle bull. There is a pronounced tapering of the penile end and glans penis is rather poorly developed. The thrust is shorter and less forceful than the bulls. The sheath is tighter and closer to the abdomen than zebu cattle. These anatomical differences are of significance in the semen collection work and type of artificial vagina to be used. The weight of testis and epididymidis in the male buffalo is only ¼ of what it is in cattle. In addition, the seminal vesicles and the prostate are considerably smaller.

Stomata are pores formed between two specialized epidermal cells, the guard cells, which are found on the surface of aerial parts of higher plants (leaves). They control the gas exchange between the leaf and the ambient air. Their main functions is to facilitate the entry of CO² into the leaf for photosynthesis and loss of water vapour for evaporative cooling of the leaves.

The guard cells are formed by the transverse division of stomatal mother cells that differ morphologically and biochemically from other epidermal cells. The middle lamella disintegrates and the two walls separate leaving an opening between them the stomatal pore. The walls bordering the pore become considerably thickened. They are generally cutinised. This radial thickening of the inner wall plays an important role in stomatal movement. Stomata control 95 per cent or more of CO² and water vapour exchange between the leaf and atmosphere.

Location and occurrence of stomata: Stomata are found in all higher plants down to the evolutionary level of the phylum Bryophyta. Stomata are not found in liverworts. In the leaves of most herbaceous plants the stomata are found in both upper (Adaxial) and the lower (Abaxial) surfaces. Such leaves are known as Amphistomatus. Usually in tree species, stomata are found only on the lower surface of the leaves. Such leaves are called Hypostomatus. Aquatic plants with floating leaves such as water lilies have stomata only on the upper surface and such leaves are called Epistomatus. Most of submerged aquatic plants do not posses stomata and diffusion of gases occurs between water and plant tissues across a thin cuticle. In many cases subsidiary cells are present adjacent to the guard cells. These are specialized epidermal cells which are usually different in size and shape from other epidermal cells. They are usually smaller than the epidermal cells and have more dense cytoplasmic contents and a greater frequency of cell organelles. In grasses and some other species, subsidiary cells are intimately involved in stomatal mechanism.

Diffusion of gases through stomata is governed by the two important parameters associated with the stomata, viz., the stomatal frequency and the extent of opening of the stomata. Stomatal frequency is defined as the number of stomata per unit leaf area (no.mm ^-2 ). Apart from the stomatal frequency, yet another parameter that reflects the stomatal distribution is the stomatal Index. It is the ratio of the number of stomata per unit leaf area to the total number of epidermal cells and is generally expressed in percentage.

In spite of its high protein (CP, 34-36%) content, castor bean meal as such is not used as livestock feed due to the presence of toxic factors viz., ricin, ricinine and allergen. Of the three, ricin is the most detrimental to animals. In order to detoxify the castor cake, a number of physical and chemical methods are employed. The efficacy of the treatments is assessed, based on the qualitative and quantitative changes in ricin content. Of all the detoxification methods, autoclaving (15 p.s.i., 60 min) and lime (4% w/w) treatments completely destroy the toxin. (Anandan et. al., 2005).

Estimation of Ricin

The raw and detoxified samples can be analysed for the toxin, ricin as per the method of Kabat et al. (1947) with modifications as suggested by Waller and Negi (1958).

Extraction of Ricin

The solvent extracted castor cake sample of 500 g is extracted with 2.5 l of water acidified with HCl to a pH of 3.8 by shaking the contents in a conical flask for 6 h. The contents are allowed to settle and are then filtered trough Whatman filter paper No.1 . The residue is treated with 1.5 l of distilled water, shaken for 3 h and filtered through the same paper. A second treatment with water is given to the residue and filtered again through the same filterpaper.

This filtrate contains all the ricin and portions of ricinine that are soluble in cold, dilute HCI. It is evaporated to a small volume by vacuum distillation below 40 °C. The filtrate is saturated with sodium chloride and centrifuged at 4000 rpm for 20 min. to separate the precipitate containing only ricin.

Aim

To study the working principle and cleaning efficiency of air-screen seed cleaner cum grader

Apparatus required

Lab model air-screen seed cleaner cum grader

Seed sample

Weighing balance

This great Hahnemannian antipsoric is a constitutional remedy. Its chief action is on the glands, skin and bones. Increased general and local perspiration, swelling of glands, scrofulous and rachitic conditions generally offer numerous opportunities for the application of Calcarea. A jaded state, mental or physical, due to overwork. Persons of scrofulous type, who take cold easily, with increased mucous secretion, children who grow fat, are large bellied, with large head, pale skin, chalky look, affections caused by working in water. Children crave eggs and eat dirt and other indigestible things; are prone to diarrhoea. Calcarea patient is fat, fair, flabby and perspiring.

In cases of deficient or irregular bone development, deformed extremities, a crooked spine, a softening of the bone, Calcarea Carb comes handy. While the Sulphur patient might be usually thin, lean and wiry, the Calcarea patient might be obese. But like Sulphur, Calcarea carb helps in easy relapses, interrupted convalescence.

12.1 Introduction

Aonla (also called Amla, Indian gooseberry) is a tropical and sub-tropical fruit. It is mainly recognized due to its high nutritive, medicinal and therapeutic properties. It contains high amount of vitamin C (500-1500 mg/100 g); it is also rich in pectin, iron, calcium and phosphorus. Dried fruits of aonla are used in curing haemorrhage, diarrhoea, chronic dysentery, diabetes, jaundice, dyspepsia, cough etc. Aonla is the main ingredient of Chavanprash and Triphala powder. The fruit contains gallic acid and leucoanthocyanin which have antioxidant property. Its cultivation is more common and widely grown in Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.

Introduction

The chestnut is similar to the acorn of oak. Chestnut trees have been growing in the temperate climate of the world for more than 4,000 years for beauty, fuel and shelter. The sweet chestnut is some nutritious low-fat food rich in vitamin B. Freshly harvested nuts contain about 50 per cent moisture, 40-42 per cent carbohydrates, 2.9 per cent proteins and about 1.5 per cent fat. In addition to providing a good food source for humans, chestnuts also provide food for a number of wild life species. Its wood is durable and used for timber and furniture work. Chestnuts and chinquapins are exceptions to all other nut trees in that they contain little oil and are high in carbohydrates, particularly in starch.

Fruit drop is a natural phenomenon, which occurs in most of the fruit crops. Fruit trees usually bear a large number of flowers and only a very small percentage leads to harvesting of fruits. Fruit drop occurs at various stages of maturity of fruit development. It is an adjustment of tree to its resources. Such drop is natural and beneficial to the trees and it will prevent exhaustion of the resources and breaking of branches by overbearing. The fruit drop usually takes place in definite waves or at a definite stage and those are presetting, post setting, jar drop and pre harvest drop.

The first drop i.e. presetting occurs immediately after flower opening. Usually male flowers as well as female/ hermaphrodite flowers with aborted pistil drop off at this stage.

Second drop i.e. post setting occurs a fortnight later than the first drop. This drop includes unfertilized flowers as well as some fertilized flowers drop as a result of adjustment in the trees between nutritional factors arid fruit set.

Preserve (Murabba) is made by cooking the fruit either whole or in slices/ pieces in sugar syrup of heavy concentration (65-70oBrix). Usually for 1 kg fruit around 1.75 kg sugar is used and the cooking is continued till the TSS reaches 68oB. Fruits like petha (ash gourd), aonla, bael, apple, pear, karonda, pineapple and papaya etc., are used for making preserve/murabba.
Candies are also prepared similarly but the TSS is maintained up to 75-80%. For candy preparation, the fruit pieces are dipped initially in 55-60% sugar solution and the TSS of the syrup is increased by 5% everyday up to 4-5 days and then the fruit slices are drained free of syrup and dried in driers. Fruits like aonla, karonda, cherry, apple, ginger peels of orange, lemon, and grapefruit etc., and petha (ash gourd), are used for candy preparation.
Selection and preparation of fruits: Wash the fruits in water to remove dirt and residues. Peel, core and cut the fruits into pieces. Pricking should be done with stainless steel forks. In case of petha (ash gourd), after pricking place them in lime water

Breeding of coldwater and hill stream fish involves managing their natural reproductive cycles and, in some cases, using artificial methods to enhance breeding success. This includes collecting brood stock, selecting ripe spawners, and ensuring suitable environmental conditions for spawning and larval development. The cold water fishes adopted to live below 10°C to 20°C temperature. The upland water at high altitudes of mountains and the spring water at low altitude in temperate regions remain cooler than the rest and the cold water fishes flourish in these region. Such water bodies comprising several hill streams, rapids, pools, lakes and reservoirs are abundantly found in the Himalayan region and in the Deccan plateau region of peninsular India. These are either fed by melting snow and the springs as in north or by the rain water as in Deccan plateau. During recent years, there has been growing realization for development of cold water fisheries in India, since the production from cold water is neglisable in comparison to total inland catch. The trout hatchery established in Kashmir is one of the potential sources from where the brown trout have been transplanted to the upland waters of Jammu, Kashmir, Kullu, Simla, Kangra, Nainital, Shilong and Arunachal. Other hatcheries constructed at Nilgiris and Kerala.
INDIGENOUS COLD WATER FISHES
The primary coldwater fish species native to the mountainous regions of India include Mahaseer, Snow Trout, and the Indian Hill Trout.

Fish excrete Ammonia, is a byproduct from protein metabolism and bacteria break down organic waste such as discarded food, faeces, dead planktons, sewage, and so on. When ammonia is unionized form (NH3) is extremely dangerous; yet when ammonia ionized form (NH4 +) it is harmless; both forms are known as total ammonia. Fish suffering from ammonia toxicity often”become lethargic and frequently emerge near the surface gasping for oxygen. common effects of ammonia in the range >0.1mg/l include Gill damage, breakdown of mucous-producing membranes, “sub-lethal” effects like reduced growth, poor (FC) feed conversion, and reduced disease resistance at concentrations lower than lethal concentrations, osmoregulatory imbalance, and kidney failure.
Principle
When Ammonia react with alkaline Nessler reagent (K2HgI4 or 2KI + HgI2) it produces a yellowish-brown coloured compound. Pretreatment with ZnSO4 and NaOH precipitates Ca, Mg, Fe and sulphide, which form turbidity and apparent colour. Addition of ethylene diamine tetraacetic acid, EDTA (before nessler’s reagent) or Rochelle salt solution prevents precipitation of residual Ca and Mg in presence of the alkaline Nesslers’s reagent.

The best environment for growing cells is similar to  the conditions what they experience in vivo. A number of various environmental factors affecting the tissues are :
 
    (1)    Temperature : In living matter, complicated chemical reactions are happened at comparatively low temperature.  In most of the mammalian and avian tissues the temperature  is 37^ºC to 38.5^ºC. If the temperature is enhanced to 45^ºC, cells are destroyed within  an hour but survive 12-24 hours at 42^ºC. It is applicable to most of the fibroblasts and epithelial  types of cells arising  from  mammalian tissues. Some of the mammalian cells ( human skin epithelial cells)  and amphibian cells  prefer lower temperature but fish tissue will not survive beyond 20^ºC.

Transpiration is the loss of water through areal parts of the plants particularly leaves in the form of water vapour and 95% of the transpiration is through stomata and the rest from cuticle and the lensi cells.

Transpiration can be measured in several ways. The most commonly used technique as the whole plant level is the gravimetric technique where in the amount of water loss through transpiration is measured of monitoring the amount of water added by measuring the loss in weight. Another method is the direct measurement using equipments specially designed for this purpose, which steadily include porometers. Transpiration is also being measured using the portable photosynthesis systems. In the laboratory transpiration rate can be measured using a very simple technique as follows,

Aim

To determine the effectiveness of inclined belt separator

To determine the capacity of inclined belt separator

Materials required

Inclined belt separator

Weighing balance

Feed material

Sample divider

The typical Carbo patient is sluggish, fat and lazy and has a tendency to have chronic complaints. Blood seems to stagnate in thq capillaries, causing blueness, coldness and ecchymosis. Body becomes blue icy-cold. Bacteria find a rich soil in the nearly lifeless blood stream and sepsis and typhoidal state ensues. Weakness due to excessive diarrhoea, menstruation or other debilitating diseases. The patient may be almost lifeless, but the head is not, coldness, breathe cool, pulse imperceptible, oppressed and quickened respiration and must have air, must be fanned hard, must have all the windows open. The patient faints easily, are worn out must have fresh air. Haemorrhages from any mucous surface. Indicated for persons who have never fully recovered from the effects of some previous illness. General venous stasis, bluish skin, limbs cold.

Introduction and Origin

It is typically a temperate zone nut crop and is mostly grown in Turkey, Italy, Spain, Germany, France and England. Turkish hazelnut production of 625,000 tons’ accounts for approximately 75 % of worldwide production. The common hazel (Corylus avellana) is native to Europe and Western Asia. In Himachal Pradesh, it is found growing wild in the Pangi region of Chamba district, where it is locally known as Thangi. Hazelnut is also known as cobnut and filbert. In the UK, a distinction is made between filbert, which has a husk longer than the nut, and cobnut, in which the husks are shorter than the nut. Hazelnuts are extensively used in confectionary to make praline and are also used in combination with chocolate truffles.

1.0. Objectives

• To make out the definition of verb and its kinds
• To enable the students to show the correct usage of verbs
• To train learners to identify appropriate verbs for subjects
• To practise to use different types of verbs suitable, in sentence, to express the intension

2.0 What is a Verb

“A verb is a word that implies an action, state of being”. It is a very important part of a sentence as it operates sentences in particular tense. It is called the soul of the English language.

3.0 Kinds of Verb

To understand the kinds of the verb see the chart given below-

When fruit trees grow naturally; canopy varies greatly from species to species and cultivar to cultivar. It is mainly due to climate, planting density, rootstock, method of propagation, training, pruning, regularity of bearing, soil type, nutrition, irrigation, intercrop, growth regulators used, diseases, pests, environmental pollution etc. Plant canopy means the spread of branches and foliage of a plant.

Canopy management of the fruit tree deals with the development and maintenance of their structure in relation to the size and shape for the maximum productivity and quality. The basic concept in canopy management of a perennial tree is to make the best use of the land and climatic factors for an increased productivity in a three dimensional approach. Ideal canopy means fruit trees should have adequate number of fruiting units, it allows sufficient light and ventilation in to canopy and it should support adequate foliage and protect the fruits from sunburn. It should avoid overlapping of foliage to minimize parasitic leaves. It offers scope for effective coverage of sprays. It should avoid the buildup of microclimate, congenial for pest and diseases development. Tree vigour, light, temperature and humidity play a vital role in the production and quality of the fruits.

55.1. Aim

To determine dietary fibres in given samples.

55.2. Theory

Fibres can be classified into four categories like crude fibre (cellulose); acid detergent fibre (cellulose + lignin); neutral detergent fibre (cellulose + lignin + hemicelluloses) and total dietary fibre.

55.3. Procedure for estimation of dietary fibre

55.3.1. Acid detergent fibre (ADF)

Reagents: Cetyl tri-methyl ammonium bromide (CTAB) reagent and Acetone

Apparatus: Digestion apparatus vacuum pump, oven, desiccator and sintered glass crucible.

Tomato, apple, plum, mushroom, etc., are used successfully for the preparation of sauces. Sauces are of two kinds 1) thin sauces consisting of vinegar extracts of flavoring material like herbs or spices and 2) thick sauces which are highly viscous.
Sauces are prepared by maceration of spices, herbs, fruits, and vegetables in cold vinegar or by boiling. Thickening agents like pectin, carboxymethylcellulose,n etc., are also added to sauces to prevent the sedimentation of solid particles. The sauce is generally cooked to such a consistency that it can be freely poured without fruit tissues.
Procedure
Tomato fruits are washed, cut into pieces, and heated/boiled for about 10 minutes in their own juice in SS pan to soften the tissue. The heated fruit mass is passed through a pulper to separate skin and seeds. Half of the sugar and spices are placed in a muslin cloth bag which is then immersed in the pulp during cooking. Cooking is continued till the pulp is reduced to half of the original volume.