eChapters

Introduction

Water is a vital component of agricultural production. It is essential to maximise both yield and quality. Water has to be applied in the right amounts at the right time in order to achieve the right crop result. At the same time, the application of water should avoid waste of a valuable resource and be in sympathy with the environment as a whole. Understanding, measuring and assessing how water f lows around the farm, and recognising how farming practices affect f lows, will help farmers to manage water efficiently and reduce pollution risks. Land management and advanced technologies can help maximise the “crop per drop” that farmers produce worldwide. Water used in irrigation accounts for 90% of agricultural water demand. Improving irrigation systems is therefore crucial to making contributions to water savings in agriculture. In any agricultural production system the promotion of good agricultural practices and product stewardship is fundamental for sustainable agriculture. Industry is part of various multi stakeholder partnership initiatives that support efforts to protect water quality. These include reducing soil erosion, avoiding pesticide run-off and maintaining wildlife habitats as part of a holistic farm or land management approach.

Introduction

Though the potential benefits generated by the drip irrigation method are apparent, the adoption of drip irrigation is yet to be widely promoted across different regions and states in India. Several factors such as huge initial investment, small size of holding, lack of technical support, nature of cropping pattern, access to water and socio-economic conditions of farmers etc. (Namara et al, 2005, Suresh Kumar, 2012) are constraining adoption of drip irrigation. In some cases, even after the adoption of drip irrigation, the farmers, particularly, the small farmers have often discontinued use of drip irrigation for several reasons such as due to lack of maintenance, irrelevant cultural background, and unreliable water supply (Kulecho and Weatherhead, 2005).

Background and Technology Intervention

Owing to the subsequent monsoon failures and unavailability of water for irrigation, Tamil Nadu farmers have switched over to drip irrigation which is not only saving huge quantity of water for them, but also preventing irrigation run off and providing deep water percolation. In Tamil Nadu, usage of drip irrigation is prevalent among vegetable and fruit growers and organic farmers.

To relieve the plants from stress or strain of water logging and water scarcity, Tamil Nadu Horticulture Development Agency has played a key role by rightly intervening the farmers through drip irrigation technology and thereby improving water use efficiency.

Introduction

Weeds are the most costly category of agricultural pests, causing more yield losses and added labor costs than either insect pests or crop disease. Weeds are a constant fact of life in annual row crops, vegetables, and other horticultural crops. In India, the manual method of weed control is quite popular and effective. The usage of herbicides in India and elsewhere in the world is increasing due to possible benefits to farmers. At the same time, the continuous use of herbicides of the same weed shift, herbicide resistance in weeds and environmental pollutions. Application of herbicides also kills species of bacteria, fungi and protozoa thereby upsetting the balance of pathogens and beneficial micro organisms. The complexity of these situations has resulted in a need to develop a holistic sustainable eco-friendly weed management programme throughout the farming period (Gnanavel and Natarajan, 2014). Sustainable development of agriculture is concerned about the conservation of land, water, plant and animal genetic resources, is environmentally non-degrading, technically appropriate, economically viable and socially acceptable. Sustainable weed management is the use of weed control methods that are socially acceptable, environmentally benign and cost-effective.

There appears a general consensus that agriculture sector in India requires to be revitalized to enable it to respond effectively to the multitude of challenges that it now faces, and include assuring food security and environmental sustainability against the background of declining natural resources, changing climate and needs to become increasingly competitive.

Sustainable agricultural practices cover a whole range of improving sustainability: raising soil fertility, improving water storage capacity, increasing water quality, diversification, raising people’s capability to cope with risks and withstand natural calamities, reducing energy consumption, minimizing risk, and so on.

It is impossible to achieve sustainable development without applying sustainable agriculture on a large scale. The relationship between agricultural production and eradication of extreme poverty and hunger is very strong: agriculture is the very basis for food security. Together with fisheries, it provides practically all of the world’s food.

Sutures or surgical threads : means a material used to hold the edges of tissue in close approximation. 

Objectives
    1.    To facilitate healing. 
    2.    Haemostatic.
    3.    To retain drainage tube and implants. 
    4.    To reduce the size of natural opening.

Aim

To depict the detail method of tendon suturing of transected gastrocnemious tendon for union.

Procedure

After cleaning, debriding and flushing the transected site thoroughly local antiseptic and antibiotic is applied.

1. To expose the tendon ends clear visual as well as proper exposer the site was enlarged by two vertical incision placed at dorsal and ventral part of the transected site.(Fig.1).
2. The three different tendons and their locations is identified. The both end of tendon of a particular group are brought close together and joins end to end and retained with strong polyester suture putting to interrupted knots at 90 degree to each other.(Fig. 2).
3. Their peritendon cover are pulled over the suturing site from their either ends and are also retained in position with additional interrupted suture running at 90 degree to each other.(Flg. 3). In this way 4 interrupted suture are required for approaching one tendon.
4. In this way all the 3 tendons are joined with their respective other ends with suture. Total no of 12 interrupted suture are required for joining all the 3 structure of the gastrocnemious tendon. At the end the suture tendons are strengthened by placing to interrupted stainless steel suture. (Fig. 4).

Finally a flushing catheter was placed at higher level and the suture site is covered with a thick dry antiseptic absorbent cotton padding.

Harald Ulrik Sverdrup (1888-1957), a Norwegian who began his career studying meteorology with Vilhelm Bjerknes in Oslo, was appointed director of Scripps Oceanographic Institution in 1936. His 1947 paper “Wind-driven currents in a baroclinic ocean”, which showed the link between meridional currents and the curl of the wind stress, began the modern era of dynamical oceanography and initiated large-scale modeling of ocean circulation.

Abstract

In the hybridization programme, the horticulturally desirable female line HC-17- 11(susceptible) was crossed with powdery mildew resistant male line FC-1.  Over the years, the variety CHP-2 proved its stable resistance (average disease score 1.58 on 1-5 scale) to powdery mildew under natural epiphytotic conditions as well as supremacy in yield performance (11.7-28.0 t/ ha) over the check variety (10.3-16.5 t/ha) in different testing centers of AICRP(Vegetable Crops) and farmers’ fields (20-26 t/ha).Additionally, the pods are medium long (9.25 cm),light green,7-8 seeded with 48-52 per cent recovery of light green, sweet and tasteful  shelled peas. The shelled peas contain 1.4 per cent soluble protein and 9.5 mg ascorbic acid/100g of fresh shelled peas.

Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY)

The Swarnjayanti Gram Swarozgar Yojana (SGSY), a programme for the self employment of rural poor was started from 01.04.1999 after restructuring the six erstwhile Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) and its allied programmes, These were : IRDP, Training of Rural Youth for Self Employment (TRYSEM), Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas (DWCRA), Supply of Toolkits in Rural Areas (SITRA) and Ganga Kalyan Yojana (GKY), and Million Wells Scheme (MWS). The basic objective of the SGSY was to bring the assisted poor families (Swarozgaris) above the Poverty Line by providing them income-generating assets through a mix of bank credit and governmental subsidy. The programme aimed at establishing a large number of micro enterprises in rural areas based on the ability of the poor and potential of each area.

This is a benign/malignant tumor originating from the apocrine and eccrine sweat glands in dogs. It is usually recorded in the head and neck region but it may occur on any site.

Cytology reveals clusters of moderate to severe exfoliated neoplastic cells which contain round nuclei slightly eccentric in position in the light pale granular cytoplasm. In carcinomas, clusters of basophilic epithelial cells had large nuclei and prominent nucleoli. It may also contain one or two large secretory droplets.

ABSTRACT

Sweet Corn (Zea mays var. saccharata var. rugosa) also called Indian corn, sugar corn, and pole corn is a kind of maize having high sugar content (12 – 15%). It is a very delicious and rich source of energy, vitamin A and vitamin C. It is consumed as raw, boiled or steamed green cobs/ grain. Cooked/ processed sweet corn has significant antioxidant activity which has been suggested to minimize the chance of heart disease and cancer. In addition to this, it is also utilized in preparation of soup, salad and other famous recipes. Besides green cobs, the green fodder is also available to the farmers for their cattle. It requires deep fertile and good drainage loam or sandy loam soil with neutral pH. It germinates best at the temperature range from 20^°C - 25^°C. Green cobs are harvested after 20 days of pollination during kharif but the days may accorded by season to season. It is ready to harvest in 70-75 days during kharif season and 105 – 110 days during rabi season. After harvesting, green cobs should be immediately transported to the cold storage in refrigerated trucks to avoid the conversion of sugar to starch because loses flavor at high temperature. Being a short duration crop (70-80 days), farmer can earn 2.0 to 2.5 lac rupees per hectare because it require less input i.e. water, manpower and other crop management practices. Therefore, it can generate a good employment for rural youthdue to high demand in hotels for preparation of various dishes.

Scientific name: Acorus calamus L.
Family: Acoraceae
Acorus calamus, commonly known as Sweet Flag, is a medicinal plant with a long history of therapeutic use. Various names in Hindi, Sanskrit, and other languages know it. The plant has a distinctive lemon-like scent in its leaves and a pleasant aroma in its roots. Sweet Flag is highly valued for its essential oil used in the perfume industry. Unfortunately, the plant is now classified as an endangered species due to over-exploitation.
Origin and distribution Acorus calamus, commonly known as Sweet Flag, is native to northern latitude countries worldwide. It is widely dispersed across the USA and can be found growing wild or cultivated in India and Sri Lanka up to 1800 meters.
Botany
Sweet Flag is a perennial, semi-aquatic herb that exhibits a distinctive morphology. The rhizome, which serves as the plant's stem, is cylindrical in shape, measuring 19-25 mm in diameter and 10 cm in length. The exterior of the rhizome is light brown in color, while the interior is white and spongy. The rhizome is also highly aromatic, emitting a sweet, pungent scent when bruised. It is a creeping, highly branched structure that allows the plant to spread rapidly.

Sweet gourd, (Momordica cochinchinensis) (Cucurbitaceae),  called as ‘spiny gourd’,  ‘crow cucumber’, ‘spike fruited crow cucumber’ or ‘elephant bitter gourd’ and ‘gac fruit’ is a wild vegetable, native to East and South East Asia comprising India, Myanmar, Philippines, Vietnam, Thailand, Japan, China, Indonesia and New Guinea (de Wilde and Duyfjes, 2002). It is by far the most extensively distributed and more variable species among the genus Momordica L. Even though, it is restricted to Andaman Islands and Assam in India, it occurs as a natural component of coastal scrub jungles and partially opened forests especially stream banks in South, Middle and North Andaman Islands (Joseph 2005). It is cultivated in Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, West Bengal and Assam by tribal people in their homegardens. It is grown as a vegetable in China and Japan (Jeffrey 2001). It is known by various vernacular names as ‘Adavi kakrol’ (Telugu), ‘Hathiya kankad’, ‘Gol kakra’ (Bengali) and ‘Jangli Kakrol’ (Andaman Islands).

In India, Indonesia, Malaysia, China, and tropical Africa, it is widely grown. In India, there are four species of bitter gourd that belong to the genus Momordica.

Botany and taxonomy: It is an annual climber vine with woody, thick stems that can grow up to 20 metres long, large, heart-shaped leaves, large, creamy to pale yellow flowers that are single, ovoid, large, dark green fruits that can grow up to 20 cm long and weigh up to 1.5 kilogrammes, periphery with smooth thorns, yellow turned orange when ripe, and black seeds. The leaves, petals, and seeds of this plant are edible and can be eaten as a vegetable.

• Useful plant parts: Fruits, leaves, flowers, tuberous root and seeds.
• Medicinal uses: To treat Ulcers, lumbago, fractures, bronchial asthma and bleeding piles.

Sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus) is the only species in the genus Lathyrus and family Fabaceae which is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant. Lathyrus comes from the Greek word “Lathyros” in which the prefix “la” means “very” and suffix “thyros” means “passionate”. The “Odoratus” is derived from Latin word which means “fragrant” (Fernald, 1950). It is mainly grown for its beautiful flower colour forms. It is an annual climbing plant growing to a height of 1-2 m with the support of a terminal tendril which twines around the plants and helps to climb. The illness caused by the ingestion of sweet pea is known as odoratism or sweet pea lathyrism. Sweet pea was used to verify Mendel’s work with the garden pea (Pisum sativum L.) in the early 1900s (Bateson, 1902). The genetical phenomenon of linkage was first demonstrated in the sweet pea. It is used prominently as a model organism to study flower development due to its large, colourful and fragrant flowers. The essential oils extracted from the sweet pea can be used in perfume blends.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

Sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus L.) was discovered in Sicily in 1695 (Rice, 2002). Its species are found both in the Old World and the New World. The main centres of diversity are the Mediterranean region, Asia Minor and North America as well as temperate South America and East Africa (Kupicha, 1977, Jackson and Yunus, 1984, Yamamoto et al., 1984 and Simola, 1986). It generally grows in temperate regions and has been found on all continents except Antarctica (Kenicer et al., 2009 and Kenicer et al., 2005). Its cultivation is popular not only in the United Kingdom and the United States but also in Europe, Russia, Egypt, New Zealand, Australia and Japan (Hambidge,

1996, Inoue, 1981, 2007 and Rice, 2002). There are some reports of commercial sweet pea cut flower production (Hammett, 2006, Inoue, 1981 and Parsons, 2004). A seed bank at the Chichester Collection was started in 1998 and stores around 900 cultivars and around 100 accessions of other species.

Sweet pea (Lathyrus odoratus) is the only species in the genus Lathyrus and family Fabaceae which is widely cultivated as an ornamental plant. Lathyrus comes from the Greek word “Lathyros” in which the prefix “la” means “very” and suffix “thyros” means “passionate”. The “Odoratus” is derived from Latin word which means “fragrant” (Fernald, 1950). It is mainly grown for its beautiful flower colour forms. It is an annual climbing plant growing to a height of 1-2 m with the support of a terminal tendril which twines around the plants and helps to climb. The illness caused by the ingestion of sweet pea is known as odoratism or sweet pea lathyrism. Sweet pea was used to verify Mendel’s work with the garden pea (Pisum sativum L.) in the early 1900s (Bateson, 1902). The genetical phenomenon of linkage was first demonstrated in the sweet pea. It is used prominently as a model organism to study flower development due to its large, colourful and fragrant flowers. The essential oils extracted from the sweet pea can be used in perfume blends.

Sweet pepper or bell pepper, a cultivar group of the species Capsicum annuum under the family Solanaceae (Chromosome No. 2n =2x =24) is grown worldwide as green vegetable for its thick and fleshy fruits having delicate taste, pleasant flavour and colour. Sweet pepper requires slightly cooler climate than hot chillies. The fruits are generally non-pungent hence, it is commonly known as sweet pepper. It is also popular as bell pepper because of blocky fruit shape. China is the largest producer of sweet pepper in the world.
Origin, domestication and adaptation in India
Hot chillies and sweet pepper have originated from the wild and weedy species Capsicum annuum var. minimum whose domestication occurred in Mexico and distributed from the southern United states to northern south America. Domestication, cultivation and human selection brought about changes in fruit size and shape and fruit position from erect to pendant. It also resulted in more self-pollinating character due to inserted stigma unlike the exserted stigma in the wild types.

Sweet potato weevil: Cylas formicarius: Apionidae

It is a specific pest of sweet potato and the most important one. Adult weevils are ant-like, slender bodied having elongated snout-like bluish-brown head with geniculate antenna, bright red thorax and leg tips and bluish-brown elytra. Females make small cavities on the tubers or stems and lay eggs singly. Each female lays 180-200 eggs. Grubs are elongate, legless, pale-yellowish white in colour with smaller brown head. Pupation takes place in larval tunnels in the tuber. Incubation, grub and pupal stages last for 5 to 8, 14 to 17 and 4 to 5 days respectively. Life cycle is completed in 4-5 weeks and adults live for 95-110 days. The grubs bore into stems, tunnel inside and feed on soft tissues. Grubs and adults bore into tubers both in field and storage godowns. Affected tubers develop dark patches, which later start rotting. Feeding holes and adult emergence holes can be seen on vines and tubers.  In severe infestation the collar region of the plants shows unusual thickening due to proliferation and hypertrophy of tissues causing a characteristic terpenoid odour.  Even the slightly damaged tubers are unsuitable for cooking and consumption.  Hence yield loss in practice may come to 100% in many cases.

Sweet potato Ipomea batatas(L). Lam. is an asexually propagated vegetable. It is grown in most of the tropical and subtropical region of the earth. In USA production extended to temperate regions. Vines as well as roots are eaten or fed to live stock. It is the source of industrial starch and potential source of the alcohol. Among the major tuber crops cultivated in India sweet potato rank third after potato and cassava in area and production.

Origin: Available evidence suggests South Mexico through Central America and Northern South America as the probable center of origin. It is perennial but handled as annual. Its hardiness and drought tolerance are well recognized.

Family: Convolvulaceae, Chromosome number: 2n=90

It is the only known natural hexaploid morning glory. Most of the wild species are diploid (2n=30). Hybridization is restricted with in species because of its hexaploidy nature. Extensive variability with in species is observed. Tuber is the fleshy subterranean stem or shoot but in sweet potato tuber is a root, and hence it cannot be a tuber (common error). It is a perennial, and the storage root is capable of continued enlargement and does not mature in the sense of reaching some final size or stage of development. From the stand point of function, the root system consists of absorbing roots and fleshy storage roots.