eChapters

Abstract

Malaria is a widespread disease in the developing world, known to mankind since primeval times. It exists over hundreds countries of the world. Malaria is caused by the Plasmodium parasite and cause disease in over 30 crores people annually and kills approximately 10 lakhs people worldwide. Plasmodium protozoan species which causes malaria can be differentiated into four species viz. P. malariae, P. falciparum, P. vivax, and P. ovale. Among all these four species P. falciparum parasite has got resistance to all common antimalarial drugs available in the market; therefore it is a devastating strain of Plasmodium causing of serious disease and death. The rising resistance of existing remedy based on quinoline is a key provider to the re-emergence of malaria as a main public health difficulty and its widen to fresh locations and populations. Therefore, In this compilation, an effort is made to compile clinical features of malaria, life cycle of Plasmodium sp., different classes of antimalarial drugs and their mechanism of actions and recent advances in target based discovery and recent development in artemisinin research especially different kinds of artemisinin derivatives and new structural classes of antimalarial agents. We have also reviewed new leads discovered as antimalarial from natural products where we have possible to see new lead in near future.

Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act-2001 (PPVFRA-2001) was enacted by government of India in 2001 to create a sui generis system of providing a legal framework as an IPR mechanism to protect the varieties of crop plants in India along with grant of breeders’ and farmers’ rights in the interest of all the stakeholders and also to comply with WTO guidelines to which India is a legal signatory. The salient features of this act are as follows.

The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Act-2001, Act no. 53 of 2001, (30th october, 2001)

This act is in place to provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants. It recognizes and protects the rights of the farmers in respect of their contribution made at any time in conserving; improving and making available plant genetic resources for the development of new plant varieties; it encourages accelerated agricultural development in the country; it protects plant breeders’ rights to stimulate investment for research and development, both in the public and private sector, for the development of new plant varieties; it facilitates the growth of the seed industry in the country which will ensure the availability of high quality seeds and planting material to the farmers. To give effect to the aforesaid objectives, it is necessary to undertake measures for the protection of the rights of farmers and plant breeders; as India, has ratified the Agreement on Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights should, inter alia, make provision for giving effect to sub-paragraph (b) of paragraph 3 of article 27 in Part II of the said Agreement relating to protection of plant varieties. Accordingly, this act is in place.

Taxonomic Classification of Common Livestock Species

A series of terms (kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species etc) is used to denote the member of a kingdom and each division of the hierarchy contains one or more groups from the next lower division like subphyla, subclasses, suborders, subfamilies, or subgenera etc if required. Further, species may be subdivided into varieties, breeds, or strains. Domestic farm animals belong to either class Mammalia or Aves. The scientific name of an animal comprise of its genus and species names. The first letter of genus name is written in capital letter but not the species name. While writing the scientific name of an animal the genus and species names are underlined when handwritten and always italicized when printed. General characteristics and taxonomic arrangements of common domestic animals have been given below.

Kingdom : Animalia

Members of kingdom Animalia are multicellular, eukaryotic heterotrophs. Adult animals develop from embryos. Most animals ingest and digest their food in some kind of internal cavity.

1.1. Origin and distribution

• Originated from wild non heading type, Cliff cabbage or Cole wort (Brassica oleracea var. sylvestris).
• Native to Mediterranean region.
• Three cultivated forms
  • Brassica oleracea var capitata f. alba- White cabbage
  • Brassica oleracea var capitata f. rubra- Red cabbage
  • Brassica oleracea var capitata f. sabauda- Savoy cabbage
• Major cabbage producing states are Uttar Pradesh, Odisha, Bihar, Assam, West Bengal, Maharashtra and Karnataka.

1.2. Economic importance

• Contains all essential amino acids, particularly sulphur containing amino acids.
• Red cabbage is rich source of anthocyanin.

As we have seen how artificial Intelligence can be useful in agriculture but the nest question always come in mind is that from where and how we can start to learn and what are the model of learning an artificial Intelligence. As Artificial Intelligence is a huge part of Computer Science which means we need an language as medium to perform it and we always prefer Python for that which is very dynamic and easy to learn. In this chapter we will learn about python basics so that in further implementation of artificial Intelligence it will be helpful to us.

I. Introduction

Python is a remarkable language that can claim to be easy and strong. You will be amazed to see how simple it is not to focus on the language you are programming, but on solving the problem. Guido van Rossum was the creator of the Python language which is named after the BBC show “Monty Python’s flying Circus”.

Python is formally introduced as:

“Python is an easy to learn, powerful programming language. It has efficient high-level data structures and a simple but effective approach to object-oriented programming. Python’s elegant syntax and dynamic typing, together with its interpreted nature, make it an ideal language for scripting and rapid application development in many areas on most platforms.”

Mensuration is derived from Latin word mensura which means measure. It means measurement of length, mass, time, etc. It is an art and science of locating, measuring and calculating the length of lines, areas of planes, and volumes of solids.

Forest mensuration is one of the most fundamental disciplines within forest and related sciences. It concentrates on trees and forests or potentially forested locations and deals with the measurement of trees and stands and the analysis of the resultant information. Forest mensuration also includes measuring or calculating growth and change in trees and forests. Forest mensuration thus may be defined as the art and science of providing the quantitative information about trees and forest stands necessary for forest management, planning and research. Chaturvedi and Khanna (1986) defined forest mensuration as a branch of forestry which deals with the determination of dimensions (diameter, height, volume, etc.), form, age and increment of single trees, stands or whole woods, either standing or after felling. According to the Society of American Foresters, forest mensuration is the determination of dimensions, form, weight, growth, and age of trees individually or collectively, and of the dimensions of their products (Helms, 1998). It is a tool that provides facts about the forest crops or individual trees to sellers, buyers, planners, managers and researchers.

Forest mensuration provides quantitative information regarding forest resources that will allow making reasonable decisions on its density, use and management. Forest mensuration serves the following objects

Multipurpose trees and shrubs are defined as all woody perennials that are purposefully grown to provide more than one significant contribution to the production and/or service functions of a land-use system that they occupy. In agroforestry systems, different species of trees and shrubs can be planted with many types of crops in a variety of patterns. Thus, it is required to know about the methods of propagation and nursery raising, planting and other silvicultural management practices along with the diverse uses of multipurpose trees and shrubs of tropical and subtropical areas before their selection for forestry and agroforestry activities. It is important to select the most suitable tree species since it is not easy to replace them once they have been planted.

MANGIUM (Acacia mangium)

Acacia mangium is a single-stemmed evergreen tree that grows to 25-35 m in height and up to 60 cm in diameter. The bole is usually straight, often fluted near the base, free of branches for up to half its height. Mangium is native to Australia, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. However, it tolerates varied site conditions and has adaptability to different planting objectives. Mangium shows most vigorous growth on well-drained, fertile soils in high rainfall areas in the humid tropics. It is valued for its rapid growth and has been planted throughout the humid tropics and is a major plantation species in the Asia-Pacific. Provenances from Papua New Guinea consistently show better growth in height and diameter.

Appealing packaging isthe current trend which influences consumer’s decision to purchase foods. These trends have evolved in the last four decades due to constant and drastic changes in the food packaging processes and mechanisms. These changes have shifted the focus of food packaging from the basic function of containment to extending shelf life.

Plants take up nitrogen from soil either in the form of nitrate or ammonia. Nitrate taken by plants is reduced by nitrate reductase and nitrite reductase enzymes. They catalyze step-wise reduction of nitrate to nitrite and nitrite to ammonia. Ammonia occupies the key position in nitrogen metabolism for the synthesis of organic nitrogen. Glutamic acid dehydrogenase, GOGAT and GS are important enzymes which are involved in the conversion of ammonia into glutamic acid, a primary amino acid. The ?-amino group of several amino acids is formed as a result of transamination reaction through transaminase/ aminotransferase enzymes. This process is of great significance in amino acid metabolism.

Any living organism in its natural habitat is called a wildlife. It may be plant animal or a microbe. The significance of wild life lies in setting up the balance of population in nature by maintaining food chains and food webs. It acts as the gene banks in relation to breeding of plants and animals for introduction of desirable characters such as high yield of economic product and resistance to diseases. The scientists are performing studies to screen and select useful genes in economically important organisms.

Popularly the term management is used to refer to the group of managerial personnel of an enterprise. But the use of the term management in this sense is not correct, because the managerial personnel of an enterprise are usually designated as ‘managers’, ‘executives’ or administrators. Strictly speaking the term management refers to functional concept of management. Management refers to the sum total of all those functions or activities, which relate to the laying down of policies, plans and purposes, securing men, money, machinery needed for the achievement of the organisational objectives, putting all of them into operation and supervising and checking their performances in order to ensure the productive use of human and material resources for the maximum benefit or profit of the organisation, its employees and society in general.

Management is the sum total of five principal functions namely planning, organising, staffing, directing and controlling. The functional areas of management include: a) Financial management, b) Personnel management, c) material management, d) Production management, e) marketing management and f) Office management.

Abstract

Anaerobic microorganisms occur in oxygen-free environments as they possess biomolecules and metabolic processes that have adapted to sustain them in the stressed environments. These biomolecules and metabolic processes are harnessed and employed in various biotechnological applications. Anaerobes are abundant in various ecological niches such as freshwater or marine sediments, subsurface aquifers, deep thermal vents etc. where, in the absence or limitation of oxygen, they utilise reduced ions such as nitrate, sulphate, ferric, carbonate and certain organic compounds like degrading organic matter, fatty acids or alcohols as electron acceptors during respiration/fermentation to produce more or fewer reduced products such as, alcohols, ammonia, organic acids, hydrogen and carbon dioxide as the oxidised product. Diversity of substrates that can be fermented and the wide range of products that can be formed make anaerobic processes useful in biotechnological applications. Their substrate versatility and flexibility, for example, they can utilize simple sugars as well as many of them can utilise complex renewable biomass make their biotechnological applications sustainable and environment friendly. Anaerobes have been employed in food, chemical and material industries for the production of food items, preservative, additives, chemical intermediates, solvents, catalysts and polymers. They find widespread usage in energy sector for generation of various kinds of biofuels that can mitigate our reliance on non-renewable sources for fuel production. An emerging aspect of anaerobic biotechnology is waste valorization that involves treatment of any kind of waste (industrial, municipal, agricultural, pharmaceutical), where organic fraction of the waste is converted into valuable products. Anaerobes play key role in maintaining the global cycles of carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur, and also facilitate bioremediation by breakdown of persistent compounds. Lately, role of anaerobes in medicine and health care sector is widely explored as they are found to produce several bacteriocins, antibiotics, immunomodulators, vitamins and anti-tumor compounds. Some of the anaerobes have also been employed as probiotics. In the present chapter, we discussed these and many more biotechnological applications of anaerobes in white, green, red and blue biotechnology.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is a very important horticultural crop which fetches considerable foreign exchange to India. The crop is a native of Brazil and was introduced in India by the Portuguese during 16^th Century. It is grown in India, Brazil, Vietnam, Tanzania, Mozambique, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and other tropical Asian and African countries. The crop is grown within the latitudinal belt of 27°N and 28°S of the equator experiencing a tropical temperature for its growth and development (Rao and Gopakumar, 1994). The trend in productivity has a phenomenal bearing to the distance from the equator. The world production of cashew is estimated to be around 20.8 lakh tonnes. The global productivity level of cashew is 690 kg/ha. Since 2000, the world raw cashewnut production registered an increase of 40 per cent. India’s share in the world raw cashewnut production accounts to about 25 per cent. In recent times, India is facing tight competition from Vietnam and Indonesia in international cashew trade. Since its introduction in the Country, cashew has well adapted to the Indian climatic conditions and is grown in the East and West Coasts of India. Now, India is the largest producer, processor, consumer and exporter of cashew in the world (Bhat, 2009 a). In India, cashew is grown mainly in Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala along the West Coast and Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and West Bengal along the East Coast.

Introduction

Prunus armeniaca L. is a highly nutritious fruit belonging to the Rosaceae family and subfamily Prunoideae. It is known for its attractive appearance, pleasant flavor, and aroma. The name “apricot” is believed to have originated from the Latin word “praecocia” meaning “early matured” or the Arabic word “albarquq” meaning “short ripening period.” Apricot is considered to be an important temperate fruit crop due to its high nutritional and health benefits. Apricots are rich in a multitude of vitamins and minerals, including Retinol (Vit. A), Thiamine (Vit. B1), Riboflavin (Vit. B2), Ascorbic acid (Vit. C) and Tocopherol (Vit. E) as well as calcium, iron, sodium, phosphorus, potassium, and magnesium. It also has low levels of fats and carbohydrates, making it an important food in human nutrition (Batu et al., 2007; Karatas and Kamisli, 2007). Research has indicated that incorporating apricots into one’s diet may counteract the risk posed by several ailments, including cardiovascular disease, cancers, cataracts, and other degenerative diseases (Oomah and Mazza, 2000).

Concept of Agro-ecology

Ecology and environment

The word environment is derived from the French verb environner, which means “encircle” or “surround”. Thus, our environment can be defined as the physical, chemical and biological world that surrounds us, as well as the complex of social and cultural conditions affecting an individual or community. This broad definition includes the natural world and the technological environment, as well as the cultural and social contexts that shape human lives.

The earth is the only known planet habited by man and other life forms, plants and vegetation. Man and nature have lived together and so long as man’s wants were in conformity with nature, there was no problem. But unfortunately, man’s ambition for limitless enjoyment and comfort has led him towards the exploitation of nature’s wealth so indiscriminately and so shamelessly as to reduce nature’s capacity for self stabilization. The indiscriminate exploitation of nature over centuries has created numerous environmental problems. Man’s voracious appetite for resources and his desire to conquer nature has put him on collision course with environment. The demands of his explosive technological society impose intense stress on the state of equilibrium with the environment.

Ecology is the branch of biological science concerned with the relationships and interactions between living organisms and their physical surroundings or environment. Living organisms and the environment with which they exchange materials and energy together make up an ecosystem, which is the basic unit of ecology. An ecosystem includes biotic components – the living plants and animals and abiotic components the air, water, minerals and soil that constitute the environment. A third and essential component of most natural ecosystems is energy, usually in the form of sunlight.

Familiar examples of land based or terrestrial ecosystems include forests, deserts, jungles and medows. Water based or aquatic ecosystems include streams, rivers, lakes, marshes and estuaries. There is no specific limitation on the size or boundaries of an ecosystem. A small pond can be studied as a separate ecosystem, as can a desert comprising hundreds of square kilometers. Even the entire surface of earth can be viewed as an ecosystem; the term biosphere is often used in this context.

INTRODUCTION

Nowadays, any issue related to “information and communication technologies in agriculture (ICTs)” is extremely interesting and it belongs to the modern subject-matters of the agricultural economics science. Unambiguously the above phrase is the buzz remark for the agricultural extension scientists considering that the process of communication is fundamental to extension, training and passing on information. Thus, learning processes, dissemination of innovations and social change cannot be explained without reference to communication (Albrecht et al., 1989).

An efficient communication strategy, especially when combined with a wide range of available ICTs, utilises the advantages of both personal and impersonal media communication. This can be achieved by building up, promoting and using communication networks and modern technologies. Under the term “network” we understand the complex of communication channels which ensure that all members of the target group receive the message more than once, both from various personal contacts and media. This calls for the use of existing communication relationships, the dissemination of information by multipliers and influential individuals and a range of media which are appropriate to the type of information and for reaching the target groups. As well thought out, communicative approach can partly compensate for the often lamented shortage of advisers provided that one is in a position to communicate a message in various ways, to evaluate feedback and then to take action accordingly.

Important Points

Factors for Insects Abundance

• More number of species: In the animal kingdom more than 85 per cent of the species belongs to insect group. Total number of insects described so far is more than 9 lakhs.
• Large number of individuals in a single species: e.g., Locust swarm comprising of 109 number of individuals, occupying large area.
• Great variety of habitats: Insects thrive well under varied conditions.
• Long geological history: Insects were known to occupy this earth for more than 350 million years, which is a good track record. This has given the insects’ great variety of adoptions under different conditions.

Agricultural sector need efficient functioning of its markets to stimulate economic growth and incomes of the large rural population dependent on agriculture. More than three-fifths of India’s population draws their livelihood from agriculture that adds just one-fifth to its GDP. There should be obvious serious concerns about efficient functioning of this sector both in terms of its output / productivity and its marketing. While output and productivity are supply side factors, markets provide an intermediate link between producers and final demand by consumers. An efficient marketing system is pertinent for optimization of the resource use, output management, improving farm incomes, growth of agro -based industry and enhancing value addition. The efficient markets are also important for the stable consumer prices, higher returns to the farmers and reducing post harvest losses. Efficiently functioning markets add to welfare of producers as well as consumers. For markets to work efficiently it is pertinent to link the farm gate with retail outlets so as to reduce losses and marketing costs. However, it requires an institutional framework and infrastructure to prepare the produce in the form demanded by the consumers.

This chapter attempts to travel the timeline and dissect historical perspectives of vaccination. Vaccine that protects and shields from numerous dangerous diseases (vaccine-preventable diseases; VPD) is an important area of research and development. Considering that vaccine has been very useful in successfully combating numerous infectious diseases in the past 200 years, they are considered as a historical turning point in the field of public health and medicines. Critical illnesses like the smallpox and wild polio (virus types 2 and 3) have mostly been eradicated as a result of mass immunisation programmes worldwide. Research, collaboration and widespread vaccination campaigns were necessary in vaccination efforts to control and ultimately eradicate infectious diseases. Biotechnological research has progressed to a level where producing recombinant vaccines is feasible. Research and development efforts on therapeutic vaccines are ongoing. Vaccine research in recombinant DNA/RNA technologies and therapeutic vaccinations for specific illnesses seem to be the future. This article offers a comprehensive history of vaccination since inception to its present forms, with future projections. Beginning with the variolation techniques in the early 17th century, it discusses the important turn of events from its discovery to the continued advancements and inventions till the covid-19 vaccine. Alongside the detailed core aspect, the chapter also describes the benefits of the one health approach with the zoonotic diseases in focus.

INTRODUCTION

Cotton is an important commercial crop and plays a key role in the economy of country. Cotton is grown in different states of India viz Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujrat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu. In India the area under cotton crop is 8.76 m ha and the productivity is 436 Kg lint/ha as against the world average of 682 kg lint/ha (Anonymous, 2005). The productivity of cotton is variable in the country in the range of 287 to 720 kg lint/ha (Anonymous, 2005). The major constraints in cotton cultivation in India are as follows
 
MAJOR CONSTRAINTS IN COTTON CULTIVATION IN INDIA
    i.    Abnormal weather conditions 
    ii.    Cultivation of cotton under rainfed condition 
    iii.    Cultivation of large number of susceptible and undescript cultivars with varied growth pattern. 
    iv.    Poor soil health
    v.    Long duration of crop 
    vi.    Long sowing period 
    vii.    Indeterminate nature of cotton plant 
    viii.    Intensive cultivation 
    ix.    Imbalance use of fertilizers 
    x.    Non judicious use of irrigation water 
    xi.    Higher incidence of insect pests due to