eChapters

Abstract

Agricultural produce, such as vegetables, flowers and some fruits capture higher market price if they can be produced ahead or later than the main crop season. The demand of such unseasonal products is particularly high in the fashionable markets of big cities. Good quality of the product is, however, an essential requirement to realise this price advantage. Modern technologies can pave the way to take the full advantage of high price realisation. Growing crops under protected covers is being popularised and the application of various approaches of greenhouse technology can further extend this advantage because it offers greater control over the production environment and timing of crops. There has been a consistent increase in area under greenhouse cultivation nationally and is turning out to be a useful technology for resource efficient agriculture. The types of greenhouse structures range from hi-tech climate controlled systems to very elementary trenches or solar greenhouses used in high altitude cold desert regions of the Himalayas. Greenhouse vegetable production on a commercial scale is a capital and labour intensive production system and requires proper planning for sustainable production. Higher yield, efficient resource use, earliness, off-season availability and superior quality is the hallmark of greenhouse grown vegetables. Greenhouse vegetable production can be done from very basic soil based planting to fully automated hydroponic or soilless systems. This production system requires specialised crops and cultivars which should meet the demand of high value markets.

Abstract

Vegetable crops are inherently rich sources of various health-promoting nutrients and thus they play an important role in balancing our daily diet. Being excellent source of vitamins and minerals, vegetables have a relatively variable nutrient content per unit of energy. These nutrients can be increased by proper selection of vegetables in our diet. Whereas their intrinsic quality maintains human health, the extrinsic quality has significance in determining acceptability by the consumer. Vegetables also have medicinal properties. These diversified and highly nutritive crops are of great importance in alleviating hunger and malnutrition. The present production of vegetable crops is, however, not enough to meet per capita daily dietary requirement as per dietitians’ recommendations. The vegetable production, therefore, need to be almost doubled by 2025 to meet requirement of ever increasing population from diminishing land, water and other natural resources. Although, there has been a trend of increase in production and productivity of vegetable crops since liberalization of seed trade in 1988 by Government of India, yet it has not been commensurate with the requirements. Compared globally, we are far behind in productivity of vegetable crops in spite of being second largest producer after China.

Abstract

Extreme weather conditions often cause considerable damage. Much of this damage can be mitigated if people are better prepared for impending disasters. Therefore, public authorities and private enterprises have been investing in Early Warning Systems (EWS). Environmental degradation and destruction of natural resources has been faced by humans and other organisms for hundreds of years. Some of these incidences have been caused by natural climatic and geologic processes and others by human activities. These natural disasters have been increasing over time due to factors such as urbanization, population growth, destruction of natural environment and climatic change. Biogenic and anthropogenic related environmental and natural resources degradation has direct economic and health impacts on affected regions. Land and water degradation as well as disasters such as floods and droughts have led to famine, hunger, disease, death and created many other problems. It is necessary, therefore, to keep focused on the ultimate goal of reducing disasters by all possible means. India must invest generously on infrastructure and resources for preparation of early warning systems and disaster preparedness.

Abstract

Invasion of field crops, orchards and waste-lands by weeds is a matter of concern for farmers and foresters because of the drag they inflict on productivity and the increase in cost of production involved in weed control. Science-based technologies offer workable and reliable recourse to minimizing and/or eliminating these losses to promote healthier and rewarding livelihoods. While studies have been conducted to combat brush-weed in waste-land and plantations, little work has been done on such aspects as biological control of weeds, development of herbicide resistance in weeds, and allelopathic interface of crops and weeds. In this chapter, attempt is made to assess the economics of weed management in major crops. Aspects of R&D on weed management that should be addressed for safeguarding yield in the future are highlighted with particular reference to situation in western Himalaya.

Abstract

Over the years, global climate change has negatively impacted the resources of western Himalayan region and the diversity of floral wealth has been endangered. The endangered livelihoods of agriculture based sector call for incorporating stress resistance by sustained effort that includes resort to infusion of new technologies. Biotechnology offers possible solutions to many of the intractable problems. Development and commercialization of transgenic crops have witnessed phenomenal growth in recent years. An array of traits viz. insect pest resistance, herbicide tolerance, abiotic stress tolerance, augmentation of nutritional qualities etc. have been targeted and successfully modified through plant genetic engineering. The global area of transgenic crops has seen a tremendous increase to attain 148 million hectares in 2010. Progress in understanding plant genome structure and function by high throughput characterization of genome, transcriptome, proteome and metabolome is providing new opportunities to deal with complex traits that result from interactions of a large number of genes. The other significant application of biotechnology in crop improvement has been “Marker Assisted Selection” (MAS). Development and integration of DNA based markers in the selection process has empowered the breeder to identify the desired genotypes without any interference of environmental effect or tissue specificity of expression. Cultivation of MAS derived crop varieties in the country bears testimony to the success of this technology.

Abstract

Livelihood of ~80% of rural inhabitants depends upon agriculture that relies upon the prevailing environmental conditions such as water availability and temperature. If unfavorable to the crops, these conditions would impact production and productivity leading to food-insecurity. Various abiotic stresses are generated due to the physiography that includes altitude, topography, edaphic factors, water availability and ecosystem degradation. In spite of the environmental limitations, crops have survived suggesting operation of relevant adaptive mechanisms in the native species. Indeed, novel genetic mechanisms were present and these could be utilized to improve the plant productivity under stress conditions. Also there are issues on the management of abiotic stresses, which need to be addressed. The chapter presents framework and policies on sustaining agriculture production under the situations of abiotic stress to ensure production sustainability by protecting livelihood of the inhabitants. Western Himalaya was deliberately chosen as the focus for discussion.

Abstract

Hills and mountains are an important agro-ecosystem, which have lagged  behind the plains in respect of agricultural development. The plains of India witnessed green revolution followed by white, yellow and blue revolutions, which not only increased production and productivity of food crops but helped in bringing about overall development that led to livelihood security in the rural India. The hills, however, remained technologically backward resulting in low agricultural productivity, which brought about livelihood insecurity in these areas. And this has happened despite the fact that a large number of top class institutions of the CSIR, ICAR, ICFRE, Atomic Energy 
Commission, GSI and BSI along with State Agricultural Universities have been present (in the region) and were engaged in developing technology relevant to agriculture and allied areas. However, these technologies did not reach to the end user i.e. the hill farmer for a variety of reasons. Therefore, technology development and dissemination have been accorded high priority by the state governments.

Abstract

The paper presents findings of a field study to determine the agricultural and socio-economic impact of climate change on the mountain farmers’ apple economy. The study investigates the positive and negative effects of climate change on mountain farmers’ economy. It revealed how mountain farmers in a valley were forced to abandon apple farming which destroyed their farm economy and at the same time how same climate change brought new economic opportunities. The study findings also indicate that opportunities brought by climate change seem to have a time scale. This research attempts to piece together evidence and aims to enhance our understanding of climate change impacts as observed by farming communities at very local levels. The growing threat of global warming and its effects and prevailing obscurities about the future of agriculture are all addressed in this investigation.

Abstract

The livelihood security of hill people is closely associated with hydrology of the region. The Himalayas possesses one of the largest reserve resources of freshwater in the form of snow and ice, thereby supporting livelihoods of millions of people. The physiographic constraints of the region restrict irrigation development with the result that, majority of cultivated area remains rainfed. Climate change is also a serious issue concerning hill economy. Its impact on livelihood security is dictated, among other things, through change in hydrology. In addition to highlighting hydrological issues, suggestions are offered on how to deal with water related issues to livelihood enlargement and protection.

Abstract
The western Himalayan region is rich in a variety of natural resources owing to the existence of a range of biophysical and climatic interactions. Mountain inhabitants have been living in harmony with these natural resources for generations to meet their subsistence needs out of these resources.  However, recent decades have witnessed a substantial imbalance between man and nature that has adversely affected the livelihood of native people. Several anthropogenic and natural factors are responsible for this change. Furthermore, the exposure of mountain societies to outside world has opened up a number of new livelihood options based on both natural resources and other forms of human capital. The local people have adopted some livelihood practices suiting to the changed conditions at the expense of the age-old agri-silvi-pastoral mode of livelihood. There is an emerging challenge for policy makers and planners to make developmental interventions and tailor made livelihood options suiting to the changed scenario. Several government and non-government organizations and other agencies initiated a number of programmes that focus on natural resource management vis-à-vis livelihood improvement in the region. However, for want of cause and effect analysis many of these programmes are not yielding the desired results. This chapter provides an overview of the traditionally important livelihood practices of the western Himalayan region and some of the emerging livelihood supporting activities based on natural resources of the region. A case study of Bhimtal lake catchment where transformation of traditional livelihood has taken place at a rapid pace due to the influence of tourism and urbanization has also been included to highlight the emerging scenario. The paper suggests some useful policy options for planning livelihoods in the western Himalayan region of the country.

Abstract

Tea [Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze], of family Theaceae, is an important cash crop  worldwide. It is an evergreen shrub cultivated in humid and sub-humid tropical, sub-tropical, and temperate regions of the world, and grows mainly on acidic soils. Due to limitation of expansion of tea cultivation in new land, import of low cost high quality tea, increasing vertical productivity is the best option of Indian tea Industry. The primary need of the tea industry today is to develop high yielding clones with better quality and stress tolerance potential. Conventional tea research has contributed appreciably to the genetic improvement of tea over the past several decades, but it is time-consuming and labor intensive.

Abstract

Tea is the most consumed, rejuvenating and thirst-quenching beverage. It is bestowed with ‘miraculous’ health benefits which includes promotion of cardio-vascular health, skin protection, antioxidant activity, defence against microbial infection, prevention from cancer, obesity, and many more. Among the four types of tea, green tea has attained much attention of tea consumers due to its magical health potentials.Owing to increased knowledge and marketing of its health benefits, there has been astonishing changes in its consumption pattern and increase in its production. The tea industry drives economies of the tea growing regions and contributes greatly to the country’s GDP growth as well as foreign exchange earnings. However, in recent years, tea farming has become subject to environmental deterioration because of exploitation in cultivation practices.

Abstract 

In this chapter the origin of flavour in tea have been explained under the light of chemistry of green leaves and made tea. The dependency of flavor in the final product on several factors involved in every step of its manufacturing process has been explained briefly to draw a back ground picture of the subject. On the other hand in-depth explanations on the chemical basis of diversity and complex nature of tea flavour have been given following a simple manner.

Moreover, traditional and recently developed analytical methods have also been reviewed critically. Analytical strategies and details of instrumentation involved to study or quantify the flavour in tea have been depicted in details with their prose and cones under the light of complicacy of the subject. Potential and loop holes of the new technology viz. E-Nose have been explained critically. Finally a hypothesis with little experimental proofs has been explained to meet a probable solution to the present problems in flavour analysis of tea.

Abstract
 
Tea (Camellia sinensis L.) is a plantation crop having a wide distribution extending from low elevation to high exceeding 2000 m. The demands and consumption of organically grown residue free Darjeeling tea is increasing day by day due to health consciousness and environmental awareness. The average productivity of Darjeeling tea is far below than the average national tea productivity. Reasons for low productivity of Darjeeling tea may be due to high altitude/elevation; temperature/climate and geographical location in addition to the old age of tea bushes and low plant density. In the past indiscriminate use of synthetic fertilizers has led to the pollution and contamination of the soil, water basins, destroyed micro-organisms and friendly insects, making the crop more prone to diseases and reduced soil fertility. Following Good Agriculture Practices (GAP), sustainable and quality production of Darjeeling tea may be increased through eco-forming without any deterioration of surroundings of plants.

Abstract

Tea, Camellia sinensis (L.) O. Kuntze, is a perennial crop and grown as a monoculture on large contiguous areas in India. Being a plantation crop, tea provides a relatively stable microclimate and food supply for several notorious pests such as insects, mites, nematodes which cause substantial loss of foliage. However, region-wide variation in faunal diversity exists as a result of autochthonous and heterochthonous recruitment and the influence of climate, altitude and age of the plantation. This publication provides the details on pest information (identification, crop damage, alternate hosts, pest life cycle) and their possible management strategies. On account of complex pest situations, total avoidance of pesticides in tea is not possible; although due to the sensitive nature of the crop pesticide use must be minimal. A tentative IPM strategy for tea cultivation in India has been proposed in this paper which may ensure low – cost, eco-compatible, pest management package with minimal residue problems.

Abstract

Tea (Camellia sinensis L. O. Kuntze), a foliage crop of Sub-Himalayan Terai-Dooars has Tea mosquito bug (Helopeltis theivora)(TMB), looper caterpillars [Hyposidra talaca, Hyposidra infixaria, Biston (=Buzura) suppresseria] and Red spider mite (Oligonychus coffeae)(RSM) as major pests. In conventionally managed tea plantations, synthetic pesticides and acaricides are routinely applied. The pesticide-exposed pest populations show higher tolerance level as evident in their increased LC50 values. Augmented activities of detoxifying enzymes viz. general esterases (GE), glutathione S–transferases (GST) and cytochrome P450 mediated monooxygenases (CYP) were recorded in the pesticide-exposed pest populations. Sub–lethal exposure to monocrotophos (36% SL) enhanced the tolerance level in adult TMB by 105 fold through three generations. Increased activity of GE was evident in the pesticide-exposed populations of the tea loopers. Activities of GE and GST  in RSM were significantly higher in acaricide-exposed population. Present studies can help developing enzyme-based assay kit for determining level of pesticide-resistance. Integrated resistance management has become an integral part of modern day IPM practices. Adoption of newer chemicals, and cultural practices can minimise synthetic pesticide applications, thereby help reducing resistance development in pests.

Abstract

Pruning is the most important cultural operations in tea cultivation. Time of pruning affects health of bush, incidence of pests and disease, yield and distribution of crop. Root starch reserve at the time of pruning affects the recovery of bush and hence considered as the most crucial factor for deciding time of pruning. Downward movement of photosynthates was found maximum in December and January, thereby maximizing the starch reserve in roots. Maximum recovery of tea bush and minimum loss in annual crop was found when pruned during December – January. Pruning in remaining months (February – November ) may result in crop loss to the tune of 5 per cent – 37 per cent in plain areas. Clonal varieties differ in root starch accumulation during winter months hence pruning time of individual clone needs to be decided accordingly to enhance recovery of plants.

Abstract

Ensuring the provision of safe and healthy working conditions to all workers and promoting the availability to them of certain minimum welfare amenities are the constitutional obligations of all employers as well as the Indian state. Enlightened employers tend to provide for these facilities on their own, as part of their performance and retention strategies. Others, however, largely consider these obligations as burden. Some recent researches reveal that the pursuit of numerical flexibility policies is becoming rampant amongst employers in the advanced world; they are doing so to cut costs and become more competitive. This means more use of labour-cost-saving devices and neglect of some basic rights of workers. Of course, intense competition amongst companies puts pressure on them to attempt cost-cutting and ignore these legal provisions. It should be noted however, that the law relating to working conditions is perhaps the most basic of labour laws in any country; therefore, its sanctity has to be maintained with an added responsibility by all concerned and as a societal value.

Abstract

“Darjeeling Tea” as a global brand brings attention to the Darjeeling District and creates a global imaginary which obliterates the dark colonial history, existing exploitation of the workers and the natural resources of the region. The global brand name is protected under the certification trademarks which has a geographical indication. Thus only tea from the 87 tea plantations can be called Darjeeling Tea. There is an increasing trend towards Darjeeling Tea going organic and fairtrade. This trend is critiqued with questions of how green and fair can a monoculture plantation get. Within this imaginary, small farmers’ tea offers an alternative paradigm based on equity and diversity. This paper explores the alternative by highlighting the (United Development Organization) journey of a small farmers collective Mineral Spring SanjuktaVikashSanstha.

Abstract

The history of the development of the tea plantation industry in the Darjeeling district dates back to the early fifties of the nineteenth century when the English entrepreneurs took lease of extensive land on the mountain slopes of the Darjeeling Himalaya and started tea plantations. During the formative years of the introduction of the plantation industry the region was sparsely populated so, laborers from various parts of India and her neighboring countries were encouraged to settle in the fringe areas of the Tea gardens. Over the last 160 years many changes have taken place in their lifestyle. The main purpose of this paper is to reconstruct the history of Darjeeling tea and to explore the life of people in the Darjeeling region and also to learn how the local populace adjusted themselves with the given environment with the changing scenario of the area.