eChapters

Solid state materials can exists in various forms namely:

1. Single crystals (preferred for authentic characterization of structure and physical properties)
2. Polycrystalline powders that are agglomerates of large number of crystallites and are used for characterization when single crystal cannot be easily obtained
3. Nanocrystalline or nanostructured materials that posses large surface area
4. Thin films that can be grown in the best crystalline form for many applications
5. Amorphous systems that have no long-range translational order

Abstract

Synthetic biology is a multidisciplinary field of study that seeks to understand living systems and organisms, and utilizes engineering principles to design and create new biological components, devices, and systems, as well as modify existing natural systems. This chapter provides an introduction to synthetic biology and describes the procedures and methodologies involved in the design and construction of novel biological systems. The applications of synthetic biology are vast and include the development of biosensors, gene circuits, metabolic pathways, and genetically modified organisms for use in a variety of industries, including healthcare, agriculture, energy, and environmental remediation.

A variety produced by crossing inter se a number of genotypes selected for good general combining ability in all hybrid combinations with subsequent maintenance of the variety by open-pollination. According to Hayes and Garber (1919), the synthetic production of an improved variety by inbreeding and cross-breeding seems a reasonable plan. Synthetic cultivar is a commercial entity and a combination of number of inbred lines, sibbed lines, clones or other populations of cross-pollinated crops. The features of the components are as follows:

1. They will have been tested for their combining ability.
2. They will be preserved for future syntheses of the synthetic variety.
3. The component lines will be combined in a manner so as to allow random mating.

Synthetic varieties are normally used in cross-pollinated crops in those situations where hybrid development and organized seed production are in the preliminary stages. Inbred lines are common components of synthetics because they are easy to maintain and can be used again and again as per requirement of reconstituting the synthetics. When selfing is not possible, sibbing may be used. In case of perennials, clones are used as components. Combining ability of the component lines is determined in different ways. General combining ability is desired more than the specific combining ability because there are several components to a synthetic variety and each is required to combine well with the rest other lines. Random crossing of components of a synthetic variety is assumed and each line should contribute the same amount of seed to the next generation. Because a synthetic variety is a mixture of many genotypes, it might change under selection pressure during multiplication.

Summary

Synthetic seed technology is an alternative to traditional micropropagation for the production and delivery of cloned plantlets. Several aspects of the technique are still underdeveloped and hinder its commercial application. This technology may be of greater value in breeding programs and allows the propagation of many elite genotype-derived plants in a short time and would provide an easy and novel propagation system for the elite as well as difficult to root species. Also, encapsulation of propagules that were produced in vitro could reduce the cost of micropropagation of plantlets for commercialization and final delivery to the farmer field. This technology also employed for germplasm storage and exchange purposes.

INTRODUCTION

The seed (or zygotic seed) is the vehicle that connects one generation to another in much of the plant kingdom. By means of seed, plants are able to transmit their genetic constitution in generations and therefore seeds are the most appropriate means of propagation, storage and dispersal. A synthetic seed or ‘synseed’ is “an encapsulated single somatic embryo”, i.e., a clonal product that can be handled and used as real seed for transport, storage and sowing and that, therefore, would eventually grow either in vitro or ex vitro, into a plantlet through a process of “conversion”. Now a day, artificial seed technology is one of the most important tools to breeders and scientists of plant tissue culture.

In general, synthetic seeds are defined as artificially encapsulated somatic embryos, shoot tips, axillary buds or any other meristematic tissue, used for sowing as a seeds and posses the ability to convert into whole plant under in vitro and in vivo conditions and keep its potential also after storage (Capuano et al., 1998). The aim and scope for switching towards artificial seed technology was for the fact that the cost-effective mass propagation of elite plant genotypes will be promoted. There would also be a channel for new transgenic plants produced through biotechnological techniques to be transferred directly to the greenhouse or field. The artificial seed technology has been applied to a number of plant species belonging to angiosperms.

Artificial seeds have great potential for large scale production of plants at low cost as an alternative to true seeds (Roy and Mandal, 2008). An artificial seed is often described as a novel analogue to true seed consisting of a somatic embryo surrounded by an artificial coat which is atmost equivalent to an immature zygotic embryo, possibly at post-heart stage or early cotyledonary stage. The artificial seed production technique was first used in clonal propagation to cultivate somatic embryos placed into an artificial endosperm and constrained by an artificial seed coat. Today artificial seeds represent capsules with a gel envelope, which contain not only somatic embryos but also axillary and apical buds or stem and root segments (Vdovitchenko et al., 2011). Explants such as shoot tips, axillary buds and somatic embryos are encapsulated in cryoprotectant material like hydrogel, alginate gel, ethylene glycol, dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO) and others that can be developed into a plant. The coating protects the explants from mechanical damage during handling and allows germination and conversion to occur without inducing undesirable variations. They behave like true seeds and sprout into seedlings under suitable conditions.

INTRODUCTION

The seed (or zygotic seed) is the vehicle that connects one generation to another in much of the plant kingdom. By means of seed, plants are able to transmit their genetic constitution in generations and therefore seeds are the most appropriate means of propagation, storage and dispersal. A synthetic seed or ‘synseed’ is “an encapsulated single somatic embryo”, i.e., a clonal product that can be handled and used as real seed for transport, storage and sowing and that, therefore, would eventually grow either in vitro or ex vitro, into a plantlet through a process of “conversion”. Now a day, artificial seed technology is one of the most important tools to breeders and scientists of plant tissue culture.

1. DEFINITION

Artificial seed technology involves the production of tissue culture derived somatic embryos encased in a protective coating. Artificial seeds have also been often referred to as synthetic seeds. However, the term ‘synthetic seed’ should not be confused with commercial seeds of a synthetic cultivar which is defined as an advanced generation of an open pollinated population composed of a group of selected inbred clones or hybrids. The concept of artificial or synthetic seed is shown in Figure 1.

Introduction

Synthetic seeds are defined as artificially encapsulated somatic embryos, shoot buds, cell aggregates, or any other tissue that can be used for sowing as a seed and that possess the ability to convert into a plant under in vitro or ex vitro conditions and retained its potentiality also after storage (Capuano et al., 1998). In other words, synthetic or artificial seeds defined as somatic embryos engineered seed used in the commercial propagation of plants (Gray and Purohit, 1991; Redenbaugh, 1993).

Artificial seeds have great potential for large scale production of plants at low cost as an alternative to true seeds (Roy and Mandal, 2008). An artificial seed is often described as a novel analogue to true seed consisting of a somatic embryo surrounded by an artificial coat which is at most equivalent to an immature zygotic embryo, possibly at post-heart stage or early cotyledonary stage (Bekheet, 2006). There are various advantages of artificial seeds such as better and clonal plants could be propagated similar to seeds, preservation of rare plant species extending biodiversity could be realized, and more consistent and synchronized harvesting of important agricultural crops would become a reality, among many other possibilities (Khor and Loh, 2005). In addition, ease of handling, potential long-term storage and low cost of production and subsequent propagation are other benefits (Bekheet, 2006).

Introduction
A plant seed consists of an embryo and reserve food material (endosperm/ cotyledon) which is surrounded by a protective seed coat. The seed ensures that the next generation of plants exists. The embryo is made up of one or two cotyledons attached to a central axis. The upper part of the axis contains a plumule at its tip. The plumule grows into the shoot system. The lower part of the axis consists of the hypocotyl and a radicle. The radicle grows into the root system. The endosperm is the food reserve that the embryo uses during the early stages of germination. Before the embryo is able to produce its own food through photosynthesis, the endosperm provides vital nutrients to the embryo. Seed stands as an essential and fundamental agricultural input. It can be characterized as a propagative entity that facilitates the continuation of species from one generation to the next. Alternatively, it can be described as a mature fertilized ovule. Seeds play multifaceted roles for their parent plants, encompassing embryo nourishment, dispersion to novel locations, and entering a state of dormancy during adverse environmental circumstances. Seeds originate from various sources like self-pollination, cross-pollination, vegetative propagation, and mechanisms such as apomixis, resulting in diverse varieties or hybrids. Maintaining the genetic consistency of cross-pollinated seeds presents notable challenges. Certain fruit crops encounter obstacles in natural seed propagation due to factors like seed heterozygosity, diminished endosperm size, or minuscule seed dimensions. Additionally, some seedless fruits cannot be propagated conventionally through seeds. Seeds frequently become susceptible to seed-transmitted diseases, facilitating the transmission of diseases across different geographical areas. These constraints in seed-based propagation have spurred the exploration of alternative techniques for species proliferation. This exploration led to the emergence of the concept of synthetic seeds within the realm of plant tissue culture. Synthetic seeds are also known as synseeds or artificial seeds or somatic seeds, seed analog, or manufactured seed. The concept of synthetic seeds has been described in various manners by different researchers. Capuano et al., (1998) defined synthetic seeds as somatic embryos that are enclosed artificially, originating from shoot buds, cell aggregates, or any suitable plant tissue for sowing purposes. These synthetic seeds are capable of developing into plants under controlled in vitro or ex vitro conditions and can maintain this potential even after prolonged storage. Another definition of synthetic or artificial seeds comes from Gray and Purohit (1991) and Redenbaugh (1993), who refer to them as somatic embryos designed for use in the commercial propagation of plants.

Synthetic seeds are also known as somatic seeds, artificial seeds, clonal seeds and synseeds. They are analogue for botanical seeds. Somatic embryoids which are tissue culture produced embyoids with bipolar structures, apical and basal meristematic regions which are capable of forming shoot and root respectively. Somatic embryoids are encapsulated and are used as artificial seeds possessing the ability to convert into plants in in vitro and ex vitro conditions. Artificial seeds are broadly two types.

A variety produced by crossing inter se a number of genotypes selected for good general combining ability in all hybrid combinations with subsequent maintenance of the variety by open-pollination. Synthetics development is common in cross- pollinated crops in the early phases of breeding. The synthetic method of breeding is suitable for improving cross-fertilized crops. It is widely used to breed forage species. Successful synthetic cultivars have been bred for corn, sugar beets, and other species like cauliflower in India. The suitability of forage species for this method of breeding stems from several biological factors. Forages have perfect flowers, making it difficult to produce hybrid seed for commercial use. The use of male sterility may facilitate controlled cross-pollination, which is difficult to achieve in most forage species. To test individual plants for use in producing the commercial seed, it is essential to obtain sufficient seed from these plants. The amount of seed obtained from single plants of these species is often inadequate for a progeny test. Furthermore, forage species often exhibit self-incompatibility, a condition that inhibits the production of selfed seed. Synthetic cultivars are also used as gene pools in breeding progeny. Synthetic cultivars are advantageous in agricultural production systems where farmers routinely save seed for planting. One of the well-known and widely used synthetic has been the Iowa stiff- stalk synthetic (BSSS) of maize.

Surface: border strip, furrow, basin and check basin
Sub-surface
Micro-irrigation: drip, sprinkler; Pichter and bottle
Definition of Irrigation Method
Application of irrigation water to cropped field by different types of layouts is called as irrigation methods. The methods of irrigation initially might have been started to check the over flow of water from one field to another. But today, it has become necessary to save the water by proper methods to arrest run-off loss, percolation loss, evaporation loss etc., and to optimize the crop water need. Hence, irrigation method can be defined as the way in which the water is applied to the cropped field without much application and other losses, with an objective of applying water effectively to facilitate better environment for crop growth.
Factors Influencing Irrigation Methods
Soil type: The soil physical properties such as texture, structure, porosity, infiltration rate, etc. influence the selection of irrigation methods. Heavy texture soil restricts water movement than light texture soil wherein water move freely to deeper sections due to high porosity. Single grain structure soil allows water freely to move downward compared to other structures
Soil depth: If soil is shallow which holds less water, leveling and forming bunds etc. to hold? Maximum water is to increase the irrigation interval. Similarly if the soil is deep, it holds more water and needs longer irrigation interval. Accordingly, the irrigation methods can be selected.
Topography of land: In undulating topography, it is very difficult to adopt normal methods of irrigation. The slope of the land also decides the methods to be adopted. If the land is more sloppy, basin method cannot be used. In this condition strip method can be used. For undulating topography instead of strip or basin method, sprinkler or drip methods can be used.

Introduction 
A system approach to understand the soil-plant-water continuum fundamentally shifts our perspective from viewing these elements in isolation to recognizing them as an intricately woven, dynamic whole. It’s about appreciating that every change in one part of this natural tapestry—be it the soil, the plant, or the water itself—reverberates through the others, creating a cascade of interconnected effects. This holistic lens allows us to dissect the continuous exchange of water and energy, unraveling the complex feedback loops and emergent behaviors that characterize this vital agricultural system. Instead of merely tracking individual inputs and outputs, a systems view compels us to comprehend how these components influence each other over time, leading to a far more nuanced understanding of their collective behavior. At the heart of this continuum lie three primary, yet inseparable, components: the soil, the plant, and the water itself, all profoundly influenced by the atmosphere. The soil acts as both a foundational anchor and a dynamic reservoir. Its very composition—the proportion of sand, silt, and clay, its structure, and its organic matter content—dictates how readily water infiltrates, how much it can hold against the pull of gravity, and how quickly it can release water to plant roots. Processes like infiltration, percolation, and capillary rise describe water’s journey within the soil matrix, while evaporation from the soil surface represents a significant loss pathway. Crucially, the soil also serves as the medium for nutrient availability, with water acting as the solvent that transports these vital elements to the roots. The plant, in turn, is the primary biological conduit for water’s journey from the soil back to the atmosphere. It actively absorbs water through its roots, moving it upward through the xylem to the leaves, where it is transpired through tiny pores called stomata. This transpiration process is not merely a loss; it’s the driving force behind the plant’s physiological engine, facilitating

Cost is the value of the factors of production used in producing and distributing goods and services. The cost of a factor unit equals the maximum amount which the factor could earn in alternative employment. Broadly speaking, cost is the measure of what has to be given up in order to achieve something. Production costs play an important role in the decision of the farmers. Cost of production here means the exogenesis incurred per unit of output. In general, at given level of prices, a farmer can increase his farm income in two ways i.e. (i) by increasing production or (ii) by reducing the cost of production. The cost of production involves both cash cost and non cash cost items. Cash costs are incurred when resources are purchased and used immediately in the production process such as casual labour, fertilizer fuel etc. And non cash cost like depreciation on farm building and equipment and payment made to farmer himself or family labour, management and owned capital. Before estimating the cost of cultivation/production, we should know the concepts/terms are used in estimating the cost. Concept means idea underlying or general notion.

Cost concepts and items of cost

The cost of production of a crop is considered at three different levels viz., cost A, cost B and cost C. The concept of nine costs such as is followed by the Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agricultures Government of india in their cost studies are given below.

With the advent of modern crop varieties, better irrigation facilities and greater use of fertilizers and other inputs country has changed within the last 50 years from a region of food scarcity to a region of food sufficiency. The greenrevolutiontechnologiesinvolvinggreateruseofsynthetic agro-chemicals such as frrertilizers and pesticides with adoption of nutrient- responsive, high yielding varieties of crops have boosted the production per unit area under different crops and cropping systems. However, this increase in production has slowed down and in some cases there are indications of decline in growth of productivity and production (Table 1). These production scenarios may be envisaged as corresponding decrease in soil organic matter and continuous increase in multi nutrient deficiency (Dwivedi et al., 2006). If such situation is allowed to continue for another few decades, there are chances that todays’ productive land may become unproductive. The declines in yield and production fatigue have been noticed in various cropping systems of different agro-eco region (Gill and Singh, 2009). Farmers’ participatory surveys conducted in Indo-Gangetic Plain (IGP) region indicates that farmers’have resorted higher doses ofnutrients each year to obtain the same yield as obtained in previous year (Dwivedi et al., 2001). The probable reasons behind these are continuous mining of nutrients, inadequate use of organic sources, imbalance fertilization and decline of soil organic matter.

A nutrient budget is a valuable indicator of the long term sustainability of a cropping system. It indicates where fertilizer application is inadequate and leading to decline in the soil nutrient status. Conversely, it can indicate excessive inputs which result in a nutrient surplus and greater potential for losses to the environment and waterways. (Combs et al., 1996) Thus nutrient budget is the comparison between all the sources of nutrients available to the producer and the requirement of nutrients to meet the crop and soil needs. The sources can either be from on the farm, such as livestock manure or credits from legumes, or from off the farm, such as purchased fertilizer or irrigation water. The requirement is the amount of nutrients needed by the crop to obtain the expected yields.

Most values for nutrients available from different sources (credits) and crop nutrient requirements are calculated from estimates taken from many years of long historical averages and field research. There is no “real time” method of calculating exactly what neither the crop’s nutrient requirement or the nutrients available are at any one time. More closely, both the nutrient requirements and availability are based on past performance for the climatic and soil condition. These values are given with some surety that the crop grown will be supplied with adequate nutrient during the growing season and the crops will not be limited in its growth. All incidental environment losses, such as runoff and leaching, have been accounted for. Climatic conditions, particularly temperature and soil moisture, greatly influence both the crop performance and the soil’ s capacity to provide nutrients to the plant. During any growing season, there can be many changes in the climate conditions that will affect both the crop growth and soil delivery of nutrients to the crop.

Although a nutrient budget is not an exact formula for supplying nutrients, it is one method for organizing the nutrient needs ofthe crop with the nutrients available on the farm. Nutrient budgets can easily determine if there is a gross imbalance between the nutrients that are available vs. the amount required. Nutrient budgets are one of the best methods to see the over all supply of crop nutrients available, compared to the estimated crop needs as given by historic records and field research. Continued use of soil testing, plant and water analyses and yield monitoring are essential to maintain good nutrient balance with desired results.

Introduction

Though India is a highest producer of milk in the world, only 15 to 20 per cent of the milk is marketed through organized sector comprised of cooperative societies, public and private processing plants. Bulk marketing is limited to processing plants and cooperative societies. In contrast to Indian situation, most of the milk in developed world is consumed in different processed forms. It is something very general to India where overall food markets for processed foods are generally low and same is the case with milk. By all estimates about 75 per cent of the milk purchased by the consumer as liquid milk whether raw or processed. The share of pasteurized milk is only 10 per cent but the demand is increasing at the rate of 15 percent per annum. One fourth of the milk production is processed in the unorganized sector transforming into products like, sweets. Khoa, paneer, curd, lassi, etc. There are small scale milk product manufacturing units which fall in the category of semi-organized sector comprised of creameries, ice-cream units which are manufacturing the similar products as produced by the composite milk plants in the organized sector. They generally serve the local markets but have the important share in processing of milk as well as meeting the consumers specific demands. The organized sector comprised of mainly dairy plants, procures surplus milk through Milk Producers Cooperative Societies and generally follows the HACCP standards leading to quality of the products, whereas unorganized sector is composed of milk vendors, contractors, halwaies and creameries, collect milk from producers and sell either as raw milk or manufactured milk products or both.

Introduction

India has cemented its position as the global leader in milk production for 2023-24, contributing a staggering 230.58 million tonnes, or 25% of the world’s total supply. This achievement reflects an annual growth rate of 4%, driven by a vast network of small-scale farmers who manage one or two milch animals each. Despite their limited productivity, these farmers collectively power the nation’s dairy industry. Before the transformative Operation Flood, the sector was fragmented, dominated by middlemen, and poorly linked to urban demand. The initiative revolutionized the industry, introducing cooperative, private, and state driven organizations that established a seamless system for milk procurement, processing, and marketing. Today, thousands of dairy factories across the country transform raw milk into value-added products to meet India’s immense demand, with rural households allocating 15.51% of their food budget to dairy and urban households spending an even higher 18.19%. Coordinating milk collection from millions of scattered producers and delivering it to processing facilities is a monumental task, yet this streamlined system ensures that India’s dairy sector continues to thrive and satisfy its growing consumer base. India’s dairy export performance in 2023-24 was nothing short of “legendairy,” shipping 63,738.47 metric tonnes of dairy delights worth $272.64 million to fans in the UAE, Saudi Arabia, USA, Singapore, and Bhutan. Butter, ghee, and dairy spreads took the spotlight with $43.65 million in exports (8,106.54 MT) to destinations like Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Qatar, spreading Indian flavor worldwide. Cheese exports were equally impressive, with 9,262.63 MT worth $46.84 million making their way to the UAE, USA, and Bhutan clearly, everyone loves a slice of India.

Rice is the most important crop in India occupying about 43.7 million hectares area with a production of 136.5 million tonnes (rough rice/ paddy). As the human population is increasing, so is the demand for rice, yet yields of the crop are leveling out. At present, the rice yield in India is 3.12 t/ha as against the world average of 4.11 t/ha. Not only this, the rice yield in India is exactly half than that of China (6.26 t/ha). The World Development Report 2008 predicts that cereal production would have to increase by 50% by 2030 to meet the escalating worldwide demand. The additional rice for increasing population will have to be produced on less land with less water, less labour, and reduced inputs.The major constraint in rice production in India is the lack of suitable crop management practices and sufficient irrigation facilities. The water crisis is threatening the sustainability of the irrigated rice system and food security in many parts of the world. Despite efforts on a variety of fronts, including genetic engineering of rice strains for improved yield and nutrition, no concrete solution has been found yet. There is a challenge to develop novel technologies and production systems that allow rice production to be maintained or increased in the face of declining water availability. To produce 1 kg of grain, farmers have to put 2 to 3 times more water in rice fields than in those growing other cereals.

The increasing water need for agriculture poses a potential threat to natural water resources and climatic change scenarios in the near future. The great challenge will be to increase food production with less water, particularly in countries with limited water and land resources, by promoting techniques and cropping systems of higher water-use efficiency (WUE).There is also much evidence that water scarcity already prevails in rice-growing areas in India, where rice farmers need technologies to cope with water shortage and ways must be sought to grow rice with less water.The farmers, especially those, who are resource-poor, are losing interest in rice cultivation as its profitability is declining with the rise in input costs. But, system of rice intensification (SRI) and aerobic rice culture appear to be a viable alternative of rice cultivation that may save the expensive inputs, improve soil health/ quality and protect the environment substantially.

Introduction

Training is the crucial and expensive component of HRD, intended to improve the efficiency and effectiveness of performance of the members of organization through planned learning efforts, transfer of such learning at work place and in turn improvement of the organizational performance. Given such objectives, most of the training programmes fail to inculcate the transfer component in trainees (Subedi 2004). Hence, there is an increasing concern over training transfer at work place and the resultant improved organizational performance in terms of productivity, efficiency, effectiveness and turn over etc (Howard 1995, Huselid 1995, Martocchio and Baldwin 1997 and Salas et al.. 2000, Thayer1997).