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Dietary supplements from plant sources are sometimes referred to as phytopharmaceuticals. They are produced from fresh, dried or otherwise preserved plants or parts of plants. The active ingredients are usually not completely isolated but rather are obtained along with other naturally occurring components of the plant. These other components are often believed to influence the efficacy of the active ingredient. Sometimes the active ingredients are concentrated, and undesirable substances such as chlorophyll, tannins, or resins, are removed.

Intellectual property (IP) means a brand, invention, design or other kind of creation.Intellectual property contains an author’s copyright on a book or article, a distinctive logo design of any product or web site, patent regarding the process of manufacturing.However, Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) can be defined as legal rights given to people over the creation of their minds or intellectual activity in industrial, scientific, literary and artistic fields. Creator gets an exclusive right for a certain period of time to use his/her creations.Creations of the mind means inventions, literary and artistic works and symbols, names, images, and designs used in commerce. Intellectual property laws vary from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, such that the acquisition, registration or enforcement of IP rights must be pursued or obtained separately in each territory of interest.

Extension teaching methods encompass the array of strategies employed to facilitate meaningful communication between instructors and learners within educational settings. In essence, a method denotes a systematic approach to executing tasks or achieving objectives, characterized by a structured progression of steps in a logical and orderly manner.

Thus, an extension teaching method can be construed as a series of progressive steps designed to cultivate environments conducive to effective learning outcomes. As articulated by Leagans (1961), these methods, also referred to as communication methods, serve as instrumental tools for fostering communication channels between instructors and learners. Ensminger (1957) further emphasizes the prerequisite for extension workers to possess comprehensive knowledge of available methods, discern optimal utilization scenarios, and adeptly employ each method to maximize efficacy.

The functions attributed to extension teaching methods are multifaceted

• Facilitating communication channels wherein learners can actively observe, listen, and engage in practical application of the subject matter.

• Provoking cognitive and/or physical responses from learners, thereby stimulating desired actions or reactions.

• Guiding learners through various stages of the teaching-learning process, encompassing attention, interest, desire, conviction, action, and satisfaction.

Classification of Extension Teaching Methods

Wilson and Gallup (1955) initially sought to categorize extension teaching methods based on their utilization and structural characteristics. In a subsequent effort, Bains (1987) endeavoured to refine this classification by considering additional factors such as stages of the learning and adoption processes, categories of adopters, cost implications, required skill levels, time expenditure, and intended behavioural modifications. However, while these classifications contribute to scholarly discourse, their practical utility may be limited. Among the various classification schemes proposed, the most prevalent and pragmatic approach categorizes extension teaching methods based on their intended usage

14.1. Water Source Identification

• In places where Ficus religiosa tree is found, underground water will be more.
• Underground water will be more in places where the neem tree with more knots is found.
• In places where termite hills are found, underground water will be more.
• Farmers are practicing traditional method of using neem stick, metals etc. for finding the water resource in underground for digging wells. While they are walking with this stick on hand it will be rottate automatically at the place where underground water is surplus.
• Some farmers are using the magnetic stones for identifying water sources. Magnet is tied with a thread and held like a pendulum while walking over the fields. The magnet will rotate automatically at the place where underground water is more and this is taken as the indication for digging wells.

COEFFICIENT OF THE MEAN DEVIATION

A relative measure of dispersion based on the mean deviation is called the coefficient of the mean deviation or the coefficient of dispersion. It is defined as the ratio of the mean deviation to the average used in the calculation of the mean deviation.

Aim

To find out the area of given field by cross-staff survey method

Materials required

Cross-staff

Metric chain

Measuring tape

Ranging rods

Chain pins

9.1. Rural Sociology

Science of rural society.

Study of sociological life in rural setting to discover their conditions and tendencies and to formulate principles of progress.

A.R. Desai: Rural Sociology involves the study of human relationships in rural situations.

Imperfect assimilation and consequent defective nutrition, it goes further and produces neurasthenic states in consequence, and increased susceptibility to nervous stimuli and exaggerated reflexes. Diseases of bones, caries and necrosis. In TB it must be used with care, for here it may cause the absorption of scar tissue, liberate the disease, walled in, to new activities. It is a deep acting remedy and slow in action. It is meant for scrofulous children with large head, open fontanels and sutures, distended abdomen, slow in walking. Ill effects of vaccination. It is related to all fistulous openings. Ripens abscesses since it promotes suppuration.

Silica patient is cold, chilly, hugs the fire, wants plenty warm clothing, and hates drafts, hands and feet cold, worse in winter. Lack of vital heat. Prostration of mind and body. Great sensitiveness to taking cold. Intolerance of alcoholic stimulants/Ailments attended with pus formation.

In inflammation with pus formation, which has become chronic, silicea is of great help. It is equally useful in grandular or bony ulceration. Think of silicea in whitlow, unhealthy skin, smelly feet, mammary abscess, mammary cancer, TB of the skin, the bone or of the abdomen,

Uterine torsion in cow is actually the rotation of the pregnant uterus on its longitudinal axis and usually occurs before onset or during late first stage of parturition but rarely encountered during early second stage of parturition. In cattle, uterine torsion involves both gravid and non gravid horns because of strong intercornual ligament and distension of uterine horn and body with placenta and fluid. The remarkable feature of uterine torsion is its association with advanced pregnancy and process of parturition in cow.

Climate change is a complex and dynamic phenomenon that has significant impacts on agriculture, especially in terms of uncertainty and variability. Agricultural dynamics refer to the various factors that affect agricultural production, including climate, soil, water availability, pests, and diseases, as well as market forces and government policies. Climate change has significant impacts on agricultural dynamics. Variations in temperature, patterns of rainfall, and occurrences of extreme weather can influence crop yields and livestock production in both beneficial and detrimental ways (UCAR, 2021). The effects of climate change on farming can differ based on the geographical location and the specific agricultural practices employed (Wikipedia Contributors, 2019). For example, in some areas, increased rainfall may lead to increased crop yields, while in other areas, droughts may lead to crop failures and loss of income for farmers. Additionally, rising temperatures can cause reduced crop yields and decreased quality of some crops.

Uncertainty is a term used to describe a situation where there is a lack of information, knowledge, or predictability about a particular outcome or event. In agricultural dynamics, uncertainty can refer to a range of factors that can affect the production, distribution, and consumption of agricultural products. One of the most significant sources of uncertainty in agriculture is the weather. The productivity of crops can be significantly influenced by weather conditions, including rainfall and temperature and farmers need to effectively adjust their agricultural practices to adapt to these changing weather patterns (Guntukulaand Goyari, 2020). For example, droughts or floods can reduce crop yields, while frost or hail can damage crops(Lamaoui et al., 2018).

Objective
After performing this experiment you will be able to:
Perform the cut out test for the given sample of food product.
Principle

The cut-out test is conducted to evaluate the overall quality of canned food. This test involves examining the condition of the food contents, the external and internal state of the can, and other characteristics of the product through various organoleptic, physical, and chemical assessments.

Materials and Equipment

1. Canned food: 4?6 nos. Cans

2. Tone tester

3. Physical balance

4. Vacuum gauge

5. Can opener

6. Brix refractometer

7. Scale

8. pH paper near neutral ranges.

The study of components of important farming-based livelihood models/ systems in different agro-climatic zones is crucial to understand the diversity of agricultural practices and their impact on rural livelihoods. Here’s a breakdown of the components and farming systems in different agro-climatic zones:
Agro-climatic zones
1. Tropical zone: Characterized by high temperatures and high rainfall. Crops such as rice, maize, and sugarcane are commonly grown.
2. Sub-tropical zone: Has a moderate climate with warm summers and cool winters. Crops like wheat, barley, and vegetables are widely cultivated.
3. Temperate zone: Experiences cold winters and warm summers. Crops such as wheat, oats, and fruits are commonly grown.
4. Arid zone: Characterized by low rainfall and high temperatures. Crops like millet, sorghum, and cotton are grown.
Components of farming-based livelihood models/systems
1. Crops: Various crops are grown in different agro-climatic zones, including staples like rice, wheat, and maize, as well as cash crops like cotton, tobacco, and sugarcane.
2. Livestock: Animals like cattle, buffalo, sheep, and goats are raised for milk, meat, and draft purposes.
3. Irrigation: Water management systems, including canals, wells, and groundwater extraction, support crop growth in areas with inadequate rainfall.

MAJOR INSECT-PEST OF MANGO

1. Mango hopper (Idioscopus atkinsani, I. niveosparsus, I. clypealis)

This is one of the most serious pests of mango. They are small greenish wedge-shaped insect. They cause serious damage to the crop at the time of flowering and fruiting. Both adult and nymphs suck sap from the tender plant parts, inflorescence, young shoots and panicles. They excrete sugary shirring substance on which shooty moulds develops. Cloudy and humid weather are favourable for their development.

A series of efforts have been made to initiate the work on post-harvest grain technology in India. H.M. Lefroy, the 1^st Imperial Entomologist appointed by the British Government in India in 1905 had given a tentative list of storage insects in 1906. This list of storage insects was further supplemented by T.B. Fletcher in 1914. The problems of grain storage were discussed at Pusa, Bihar at the Entomological meetings held during the years 1917, 1919 and 1923.

The Department of Food was established in 1942 by the Government of India. The executive wing of the Food Department was responsible for the purchase, movement, transport and distribution of food grains. Central Food Technology Research Institute (CFTRI) at Mysore was established in 1950 with a mandate to train personnel and evolve technology relating to food processing and preservation. The Central Warehousing Corporation was set up on 2^nd March, 1957 under Agricultural Produce (Warehousing and Development) Act 1956. On 1^st January, 1965 Food Corporation of India was established.

In 1958, the Department of Food started a centre at Hapur known as Grain Storage Research and Training Centre with the main objective to train the personnel of State Government engaged in food procurement, storage and distribution. This centre was upgraded during 1968-1973 with the technical and financial assistance of UNDP and this centre was redesignated as Indian Grain Storage Institute (IGSI). Two field stations at Ludhiana and Bapatla (later shifted to Hyderabad in March 1979) were established in 1968-69. Subsequently, three stations of IGSI at Jabalpur (October, 1980), Udaipur (February, 1981) and Jorhat (May, 1981) were also established. The overall objective was to minimize losses of food grains by development of modernized grain storage practices for the farmers, traders, cooperatives and large storage of food grains in the country and also to evolve the methodology to be adopted by the Save Grain Compaign which has its headquarters in the Department of Food.

STANDARD DEVIATION AND THEIR COEFFICIENT

The standard deviation is a measure of the spread of scores within a set of data. Usually, we are interested in the standard deviation of a population. However, as we are often presented with data from a sample only, we can estimate the population standard deviation from a sample standard deviation. These two standard deviations - sample and population standard deviations - are calculat- ed differently. In statistics, we are usually presented with having to calculate sample standard deviations.

10.1. Social value

Ideas which help an individual to discriminate whether a particular object or behaviour is good or bad, desirable or undesirable.

Norms: Times rules which govern the action

Normative behavior: People are expected to behave in accordance with the values held by the individual.

S.C. Dood defined the value as “desiderata” i.e., anything desired or chosen by someone, sometime.

Value may be considered as attitude-related attribute that are projected upon people, objects and situations.

This is a great Hahnemannian anti- psoric. Its action is centrifugal - from within outward - having an elective affinity for the skin, where it produces heat and burning, with itching; made worse by heat of bed. Inertia and relaxation of fibre; hence feebleness of tone chracterizes its symptoms. Ebullitions of heat, dislike of water, dry and hard hair and skin, red orifices, sinking feeling at stomach about 11.00am, cat-nap sleep; always indicate sulphur homoeopathically. Standing is the worst position for sulphur patients it is always uncomfortable. Dirty, filthy people, prone to skin affections. Aversion to being washed. When carefully selected remedies fail to act, especially in acute diseases, it frequently arouses the reactionary powers of the organism. Complaints that relapse. General offensive character of discharge and exhalations. Very red lips and face, flushing easily. Often use in beginning the treatment of chronic cases and in finishing acute ones.

Objective
After performing this experiment you will be able to learn:
The effect of can close temperature on the resultant vacuum produced.
Principle

The unfilled volume of the hermetic (air-tight) food container usually referred to as the headspace, is a most important part of the container –contents system. In the majority of canned foods, the headspace consists of air and water vapor. Whereas a canned food would keep for a long time i.e. minimum two years of shelf life, stable, only if a certain degree of vacuum is created inside the can. The degree to which air has been extracted from a hermetic food container is measured by the pressure inside, which is referred to as vacuum. A vacuum of -101 kPa would mean that all of the gas has been expelled from the container; a vacuum of zero would mean that the pressure in the headspace is equal to atmospheric pressure. The difference between the pressure within the container and the air pressure is measured by a vacuum gauge.

What is Plant Disease Resistance and Its Mechanisms

There are two main types of plant disease resistance:

Innate Resistance (Non-Host Resistance): This is a broad-spectrum resistance that prevents most potential pathogens from infecting the plant. It is often due to the lack of essential factors required for the pathogen’s survival or the presence of preformed physical and chemical barriers.Plant disease resistance is the ability of a plant to prevent or reduce the damage caused by pathogens (disease-causing organisms) like fungi, bacteria, viruses, and nematodes. It involves a complex interplay between the plant’s defense mechanisms and the pathogen’s virulence factors.

Precautions to be taken while working in the laboratory for personal safety and to prevent any hazards.
    1.    Be vaccinated against dangerous viruses viz., rabies and hepatitis B as persons can contract infection while working with these organisms.
    2.    Use eye protection viz., goggles, spectacles etc to avoid splashing microbes into the eyes. 
    3.    Do not rub eyes with contaminated hands or objects.
    4.    Do not eat or drink anything in the microbiology laboratory as it will contaminate the laboratory.