eChapters

Cervical vertebrae

The skeleton of neck (Fig 2-1) is formed by the cervical vertebrae. These are seven in number. Of these, the first and second cervical vertebrae are highly modified and deviate greatly from the general architectural plan of the vertebrae. The third, fourth and fifth cervical vertebrae are similar and confirm the general plan of the vertebrae. The sixth and seventh vertebrae have some special characteristics but do not deviate much from the general plan. The general plan of vertebrae and the vertebral column has been described in the chapter on skeletal system under Part I on systemic anatomy. Hence, only regional specific characters of the cervical vertebrae are described hereunder.

First cervical vertebra (Atlas)

The first cervical vertebra (Figure 2-2 A) is called the atlas vertebra because in man it supports the globe of the head. This is an atypical vertebra and it deviates greatly from the general plan of vertebrae. The body and the spinous process are absent. The arch forms a bony ring from which two large curved plates, the wings project laterally. The ring encloses the vertebral foramen. It forms a part of the vertebral canal through which passes the spinal cord.

Spinal nerves

The thoracic spinal nerves are thirteen pairs in ox. These are named and numbered according to the vertebra caudal to which they emerge from the vertebral canal. They emerge from the vertebral canal through the respective lateral vertebral (intervertebral) foramina. Each nerve, after its emergence, divides into dorsal and ventral branches. Each dorsal branch passes up dorsally between the transverse processes of the vertebrae and divides in to medial and lateral branches. The medial branch passes upward and supplies the dorsal muscles of the back. The lateral branch passes laterally on the deep surface of the longissimus dorsi muscle. At the lateral border of this muscle it passes between this and longissimus costarum muscles and becomes a cutaneous nerve which divides into ascending and descending branches supplying the muscles and the skin of this region.. Before its division, the lateral branch supplies muscular branches to the longissimus dorsi and longissimus costarum muscles.

The ventral branches continue ventrally as intercostal nerves. The first and second thoracic nerves, before their continuation as intercostal nerves, give out a branch to the brachial plexus. At a short distance from the spinal nerve, the ventral branch of each of these nerves is connected to sympathetic trunk by a ramus communicans containing preganglionic and postganglionic sympathetic fibres. The intercostal nerves run down ventrally through the intercostal spaces, lying between the external and internal intercostal muscles close to the caudal border of the respective rib and in company with the intercostal vessels. Along this course they supply these muscles. After a variable distance, the intercostal nerves and vessels traverse through the internal intercostal muscles and become subpleural in position. The second to eighth nerves end in the transversus thoracis muscle. The rests behind these end in the rectus abdominis and other abdominal muscles and the skin in this region.

The urinary organs include the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra (Fig. 4-5 A).

Kidneys

The kidneys are two compound tubular glands situated retroperitoneally in the sublumbar region. They are elongated, the right kidney being elliptical in outline and the left one slightly oval. They are red brown in colour. The weight of each kidney varies from 500 to 700 gm, the left kidney being about 25 gm heavier than the right kidney. The outer surface of the bovine kidneys is marked by polygonal lobes which are about twenty in number and are separated from each other by deep grooves (fissures). The grooves are filled in by fat. Both the kidneys are embedded in a large amount of perirenal fat termed as adipose capsule.

Horse

The ovaries in mare are bean shaped and much larger than those of cow. Each is about 7 to 8 cm long and about 3 to 4 cm thick. It weighs about 70 to 80 gm. These are situated in the sublumbar region under the fourth or fifth lumbar vertebra. They are usually in contact with the roof of the abdomen. The average distance of ovaries from the vulvar orifice is about 50 to 55 cm in the average sized mare. The notch on the free border leads to a depression, the ovulation fossa where ovulation occurs.

The uterine tubes are shorter and more flexuous in mare than those in cow. Each is about 20 to 30 cm long. At its ovarian end it is wider with a diameter of about 4 to 8 mm and becomes narrower at its uterine end with a diameter of about 2 to 3 mm.

The uterus in mare is situated partly in abdomen and partly in pelvis. The horns of the uterus are usually pressed against the sublumbar muscles by the intestine. When moderately distended they are about 25 cm long. The junction of the uterine horns with the body of the uterus is abrupt. The average length of the body is about 18 to 20 cm and its diameter is about 10 cm when moderately distended. The cervix is about 5.0 to 7.5 cm in length and 3.5 to 4.0 cm in diameter. The cervical canal is straight. The mucous membrane of the uterus has no cotyledons.

The vagina in mare is shorter than that in cow. It measures about 15 to 20 cm in length and 10 to 12 cm in diameter when slightly distended. Most of the vagina is retroperitoneal.

Horse

The visceral branches of the abdominal aorta are the coeliac, cranial mesenteric, renal, caudal mesenteric and testicular or ovarian.

The coeliac artery in horse is shorter than that in ox. It arises from ventral surface of the aorta and reaches the dorsal surface of the pancreas where it divides into three branches, the left gastric, hepatic and splenic.

The left gastric artery passes ventrally and cranially in the gastrophrenic ligament, gives off pancreatic and oesophageal branches and divides dorsal and caudal to the cardia into parietal and visceral branches. The parietal branch crosses the lesser curvature of the stomach just to the right of the cardia and ramifies on its parietal surface. The visceral branch is distributed in the similar manner on the visceral surface of the stomach. A long but narrow oesophageal branch arises from the parietal branch of the left gastric, passes cranially through the hiatus oesophageus and enters the thoracic cavity dorsal to the oesophagus and anastomoses with the oesophageal branch of broncho-oesophageal artery.

The hepatic artery is larger than the left gastric. It passes dorsal to the pancreas and reaches medial to the portal vein, divides into right and left branches from which the terminal branches enter the liver through portal fissure. Its collateral branches are the pancreatic, right gastric and the gastroduodenal arteries. The gastroduodenal artery further divides into right gastroepiploic and the cranial pancreaticoduodenal arteries.

Subclavian artery

The fore limb is chiefly supplied by the subclavian artery (Fig. 5-4 A). It originates from the brachiocephalic trunk within the thoracic cavity. The left subclavian detaches from the brachiocephalic trunk opposite the second rib, passes craniodorsally towards the thoracic inlet winds around the cranial border of the first rib and then courses caudoventrally through the axillary space between the subscapular and teres major muscles as the axillary artery. It gives off the subscapular branch and continues as the brachial artery. The right subclavian is the direct continuation of the brachiocephalic trunk after the later gives off the bicarotid trunk opposite the first rib. It gets exit through the thoracic inlet, winds around the cranial border of the first rib and then continues as the right axillary artery and thereafter as the brachial artery similar to the artery of the left side.

Horse

The arteries of fore limb of horse are more or less similar in their course and distribution. However, there are some special features in respect of some of these arteries as described below.

The brachial artery descends vertically on the medial aspect of humerus to its distal extremity, crosses it obliquely and descends along the joint capsule and medial lateral ligament of elbow joint, gives off common interosseous artery at the proximal third of the forearm and then continues distally as median artery.

The median artery descends along the caudomedial aspect of the radius covered by flexor carpi radialis muscle and divides just proximal to medial condyle into radial and collateral ulnar (ulnar) arteries.

The collateral ulnar artery is smaller of the two terminal branches of median artery. It descends along the cranial surface of radius under cover of the extensor carpi radialis and terminates a little above the carpus by anastomosing with a branch of radial artery.

Horse

The femur of horse is more massive than that in ox. The proximal third of the caudal surface of shaft of femur presents a rough eminence for attachment of biceps femoris muscle. The trochanter minor is a rough ridge like structure. The proximal third of the lateral border of shaft presents trochanter tertius for attachment of superficial gluteus muscle. The trochanter major is comprised of a convexity, a summit and a crest. The trochanteric ridge is vertical and it connects the trochanter major with the third trochanter. The lateral supracondyloid crest and the supracondyloid fossa are better developed in horse than that in ox. The patella of horse is wider and longer than that of ox.

The tibia in horse is relatively longer than that in ox. The popliteal line is prominent. It extends from the proximal third of the medial border, obliquely crosses the caudal surface and ends at the middle of the lateral border of the shaft of tibia. The medial border in its proximal third bears a small popliteal tubercle for attachment of popliteus muscle. The lateral border is attached to the shaft of the fibula and encloses an interosseous tibiofibular arch with the fibula. At the proximal extremity, the cranial tuberosity is vertically grooved. The lateral condyle on its lateral side presents facet for articulation with the proximal extremity of fibula. At the distal extremity, the grooves are oblique. The lateral malleolus is fused with the distal extremity of tibia, The medial malleolus is more prominent than the lateral one.

Horse

The arteries of the hind limb of horse have in general similar architecture as that of ox except the special features mentioned below.

The deep circumflex iliac artery which is a branch of the external iliac artery in ox has a variable origin in horse. It may originate directly from the aorta or the common iliac trunk just prior to the origin of the external iliac artery. The prepubic and deep femoral arteries arise either by a common trunk or separately from the femoral artery. The obturator artery is a well developed independent branch of the femoral artery in horse as against its origin as a branch of deep femoral artery in ox. The saphenous artery is a small branch of femoral artery and it supplies the skin on the medial aspect of the thigh and leg. The popliteal artery terminates by its division into cranial and caudal tibial arteries at a lower level in horse than that in ox. The caudal tibial artery is larger and longer in horse than that in ox. From the proximal plantar arch extend four caudal metatarsal arteries instead of four, two of them are superficial and the other two deep branches. The large metatarsal artery descends along the groove between the large and lateral small metatarsal bone and divides just above the fetlock into lateral and medial digital arteries. Each digital artery divides at the middle of the wing of the third phalanx into preplantar and plantar digital arteries. The preplantar digital arteries supply the sensitive laminae of the sole. The plantar digital arteries of the opposite sides form anastomosis. Small laminar branches from the anastomosis form the circumflex artery of the toe which supplies branches to the sole.

Pelvic (Lumbosacral) plexus

The hind limb is supplied by the nerve branches extending from the Pelvic (lumbosacral) plexus (Fig. 6-4 A and B) which is formed by the convergence of the ventral divisions of the last three lumbar and first two sacral nerves. It is formed in two parts, the cranial and caudal. The two parts are connected by anastomotic branches. The cranial (lumbar) part is formed by the fourth and fifth lumbar nerves and lies between the psoas major and psoas minor muscles while the caudal (sacral) part is formed by the sixth lumbar and first and second sacral nerves. Some times a root from third sacral also joins this part. It lies on the pelvic surface of the sacrosciatic (ischial) ligament. The nerves extending from the cranial part of the plexus are the lateral cutaneous femoral, the femoral and the obturator. The nerves extending from the caudal part are the cranial gluteal, caudal gluteal and the sciatic (ischiatic).

Lateral cutaneous femoral nerve

The lateral cutaneous femoral nerve while leaving the cranial part of the plexus, receives fibres from the fourth lumbar nerve, passes caudally between the psoas major and psoas minor muscles and reaches the tuber coxae. Here it perforates the obliquus abdominis externus muscle in company with the circumflex iliac artery and reaches the skin of the lateral aspect of the thigh. In this course, the nerve supplies the psoas major, psoas minor, iliacus and external oblique muscles of the abdomen and the skin and cutaneous muscle on the lateral face of the thigh.

In the past several insect pests had entered India and are causing economically perceptible damage to native crops. The Government of India, in line with the International Standards on Phytosanitary Measures (ISPM), notified ‘Plant Quarantine Order, 2003’ to reduce the risk of introduction of exotic insect pests in India. The storage insect pests of quarantine concern for India have been listed in Table 9.1.

Plant parasitic nematodes favour the establishment of secondary pathogens viz., fungi, bacteria, virus etc. The nematodes alter the host in such a way that the host tissue becomes suitable for colonization by the secondary pathogens. Even though the nematodes themselves are capable of causing considerable damage to the crops, their association with other organisms aggravate the disease. The nematodes cause mechanical wound which favours the entry of microorganisms. In some cases, the association of nematode and pathogen breaks the disease resistance in resistant cultivators of crop plants.

Nematode - Fungus Interaction

Nematode - fungus interaction was first observed by Atkinson (1892) in cotton. Fusarium wilt was more severe in the presence of Meloidogyne spp. Since then the nematode - fungus interations had received considerable attention on important crops like banana, cotton, cowpea, brinjal, tobacco and tomato. Some examples of nematode - fungus interaction are given in the following table.

Crossandra

Crossandra (Crossandra undulaefolia) is one of the important commercially grown flower crop in Tamil Nadu. In recent years there is a marked decline in the cultivation of this crop in Madurai, Dindigul, Coimbatore, Salem, Thiruvannamalai and Tiruchirappalli districts. The common problem with the crop is death of plants in patches during the second and third year. This is due to the nematode-fungal complex disease in the crop.

Investigations revealed the association of root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp. and the root-lesion nematode, Pratylenchus delattrei with the crop along with fungal patheogen, Fusarium solani.

Root-knot nematode

Both M. incognita and M. javanica are reported to cause damage and yield loss to the crop. The affected plants exhibit stunted growth, yellowing of leaves and also have chlorotic symptoms. The nematode in association with R. solani causes serious damage to the crop. The infested plants show root galls.

Nematode associated with insects are referred as entomophilic, entomogenous and entomophagous nematodes. Generally they belong to the superfamilies Tylenchoidea, Rhadbitoidea, Oxyuroidea and Mermithoidea of the phylum Nematoda.

Nature of parasitism

Christie (1914) divided the nematodes associated with invertebrates into three groups.

• Those nematodes which live in the alimentary tract of he invertebrates.
• Those nematodes which are more or less closely related to free living species and often have a combination of saprophagous and parasitic habits.
• Those nematodes which parasitizes the body cavity or tissue of their host.

Entomophilic nematodes are group of parasites that cause debilitation, sterility or death of insects. Entomophilic nematodes vary greatly in size and shape having the insects as intermediate or as definite hosts. Many group of insects are parasitised by nematodes.

Objectives

• To study working principles of compound microscope
• Study different parts of compound microscope

Introduction

A compound microscope is an optical instrument consisting of two short focal-length convex lenses that are used to observe the highly magnified images of small objects by naked eyes. The compound microscope is capable of magnifying up to 1000 the image of a small object by complex system of lens arrangement. The working distance varies from 0.14 to 4 mm. Compound microscopes generally require the sample to be seen to be sufficiently thin, or translucent, to allow the light to pass. Such microscopes provide high magnification, but the view is two-dimensional.

In 1868, Johann Friedrich Miescher, a young Swish medical student got excited with an acidic substance that he isolated from pus cells obtained from bandages used to dress human wounds. To obtain large quantities of pus for his experiment, Miescher began purchasing used bandages from surgical clinics in Tuebingen, Germany. He separated pus cells from bandages and treated the cells with pepsin, a proteolytic enzyme that he isolated from stomach of pigs. After pepsin treatment, he recovered an acidic substance that was named as “nuclein” by him. This nuclein was unusual in the sense that it was rich in nitrogen and phosphorous, two elements known at that time to coexist only in certain types of fat. Miescher’s paper on this investigation was published in 1871. At that time, importance of Miescher’s nuclein was not fully appreciated. Even the existence of polynucleotide chains, the key component of the acidic material in Miescher’s nuclein was not documented until 1940s. The role of nucleic acid in storing and transmitting genetic information remained un-established until 1944 and the double-helix structure of DNA was not discovered until 1953 by James Watson and Francis Crick. Even in 1953, many geneticists remained skeptical to accept the role of nucleic acid as the genetic information carrier rather than proteins as nucleic acids exhibited less structural variability than the proteins (Snustad et al., 1997).

Regulator Genes

Bacterial cells are capable of producing many kinds of enzymes in relatively large quantities but the kinds and amount of enzymes actually produced at any given time are usually those which are required at that particular time in response to the prevailing environment. Inducible enzymes are ordinarily absent or present in very small quantities until a specific compound appears. This compound is called as inducer. A typical example of this is production of b galactosidase (an enzyme that splits lactose into galactose and glucose, Fig. 44.1) once the lactose is introduced into the medium on which E. coli cells are grown. Here lactose acts as inducer for the enzyme b galactosidase.

Abstract

Fusarium wilt is major disease in Central India, the major lentil growing region of country. The disease is soil borne causing heavy loss, development of wilt resistant varieties is most effective means of controlling this disease. Highly resistant sources of wilt in lentil have not been reported from the Indian lentil breeding programme. One hundred thirty lentil genotypes including one susceptible check were evaluated in control conditions of green house against wilt, based on controlled condition screening- LL 1370, IPL 333, PL4, RLG 195, RVL 14-4, L 4737, RKL 607-1, WBL 77, LL 1320, LL 1397, VL 525, LL1379, VL526, RVL14-5, L4717, VL126, L4076, RLG191 and VL150 have been identified as highly resistant genotypes. These can be used in hybridization programme for wilt resistance breeding and studying the inheritance of wilt resistance in lentil.

Abstract

The major losses of banana at present by Panama wilt disease pathogen of banana and its management is very typical because it is caused by a soil-borne pathogen (Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. c u b e n s e ). The micronutrients are used to manage the disease as well as it provides the healthiness of plant and increases the fertility of the soil that’s why the plant is free from the disease or less infected. An experiment of micronutrients was conducted in the laboratory of plant pathology BAU, Sabour for Invitro evaluation of the micronutrients viz. Zinc Sulfate, Ferrous Sulfate, Ammonium Sulfate, Copper Sulfate, Calcium Nitrate, Borax and Potassium Chloride against Fusarium oxysporum f.sp. cubense causing Panama wilt of banana. The results of the experiment revealed that among the micronutrients used, Borax @ 500 and 750 ppm completely inhibited the mycelial growth of FOC followed by Zinc Sulfate (45.7, 42.6, 39.2 and 18.5 mm at 100, 250, 500 and 750 ppm respectively). The incorporation of borax in the solid medium at higher concentrations viz., 500 and 750 ppm is very effective for the management of Panama wilt disease of banana. This approach leads to maintain our ecosystem sustainability for a longer time and manage the disease.

Abstract

The agricultural scientists particularly those who are in advisory service, irrespective of specialization, are often approached by the farmers with diseased samples of their crops and sought advice on plant protection strategy. The strategy includes components of control measures, doses, mode and time of application. In the present article different steps of formulation of plant disease control strategy are discussed. To further elaborate the contents, examples from integrated management strategy of mango malformation disease is cited.

Keyword: Mango Malformation

Introduction

Mango malformation, disease was first time reported from Darbhanga District of Bihar State in 1891 by G. Watt. The disease is currently prevalent in almost all the mango growing country and is thus designated as the plant disease of International importance and previously considered to be a serious problem in the northern parts of the country, has now started to appear in central India too in severe form. It is well known, the mango malformation is the most serious disease, rendering mango cultivation non-lucrative in subcontinent and other regions of the world (Ahmad et al., 2002; Ploetz, 2001). Mango malformation caused by fungus Fusarium moniliforme var. Subglutinans, are proved (Freeman 1999; Zheng and Ploetz, 2002). Recently, these isolates were described as members of a new species, F. mangiferae Britz, Wingfield and Marasas sp nov. (Britz et al., 2002). The casual organism of mango malformation grows well at lower temperature and higher relative humidity. The disease is quite common in both grafted and the seedling plants (Kumar and Chakrabarti, 1997). The symptoms manifest as bunchy top (BT) in 4-5 month old seedlings in the nursery, vegetative malformation (VM) of twigs arising from axillary buds and malformation of inflorescence (MF). Normally floral malformation is more prevalent in bearing trees than vegetative malformation. Flowers in the malformed panicle are much enlarged and crowded with hypertrophied axes of the panicle. Malformed inflorescences/ panicle of different varieties were variable in respect of their shapes, sizes, growth and compactness, depending upon the cellular structure and physiology under environmental factors (Chakrabarti et al., 1990). Generally malformed inflorescences produce no fruit, or abort already stages (Schloser, 1971) and is directly responsible for reduction in yield (Kumar et al., 1993 and Singh et al., 1998). In the present study the incidence of Floral malformation on a large number of mango cultivars was recorded over a period of 5 years with a view to identify the entries of future resistant breeding programme.

Although it can be argued that due to its overall trendiness, they have been a lot of recent developments in making it more fun to work with. As a molecule, it is very similar to DNA (the most notable chemical difference is its flexibility), but suffers because the nucleases (RNases) that can destroy it are notoriously very stable and very difficult to get rid of.

Two types of molecular weight (MW) standards are routinely used. The Lambda/HindIII and PhiX174/HaeIII MW standards provide a useful reference for calculating molecular weights of large and small DNA fragments, respectively, after electrophoretic separation; the “internal MW standards” provide a means for normalizing fragment migration distances within each lane to facilitate comparisons between lanes on the same or different luminographs in fingerprinting studies.

Minisatellite is a section of DNA that consists of a short series of bases 10– 60bp. These occur at more than 1000 locations in the human genome. Some minisatellites contain a central (or “core”) sequence of letters “GGGCAGGANG” (where N can be any base) or more generally a strand bias with purines (Adenosine (A) and Guanine (G)) on one strand and pyrimidines (Cytosine (C) and Thymine (T)) on the other. It has been proposed that this sequence per se encourages chromosomes to swap DNA. In alternative models, it is the presence of a neighbouring cis-acting meiotic double-strand break hotspot which is the primary cause of minisatellite repeat copy number variations. Somatic changes are suggested to result from replication difficulties (which might include replication slippage, among other phenomena). When such events occur, mistakes are made, this causes minisatellites at over 1000 locations in a persons genome to have slightly different numbers of repeats, thereby making them unique. The most highly mutable minisatellite locus described so far is CEB1 (D2S90) described by Vergnaud.

Since the mid 1980s, genome identification and selection has progressed rapidly with the help of PCR technology. A large number of marker protocols that are rapid and require only small quantities of DNA have been developed. Three widely-used PCR-based markers are RAPDs (Williams et al., 1990), SSRs or microsatellites (Tautz, 1989), and AFLPs (Vos et al., 1995). Each marker technique has its own advantages and disadvantages. RAPD markers are very quick and easy to develop (because of the arbitrary sequence of the primers) but lack reproducibility (Karp et al., 1997; Hansen et al., 1998; Jones et al., 1999; Virk et al., 2000). AFLP has medium reproducibility but is labour intensive and has high operational and development costs (Karp et al., 1997). Microsatellites are specific and highly polymorphous (Karp et al., 1997, Jones et al., 1999), but they require knowledge of the genomic sequence to design specific primers and, thus, are limited primarily to economically important species.

The choice of a molecular marker technique depends on its reproducibility and simplicity. The best markers for genome mapping, marker assisted selection, phylogenic studies, and crop conservation have low cost and labour requirements and high reliability. Since 1994, a new molecular marker technique called inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) has been available (Zietkiewicz et al., 1994). ISSRs are semiarbitrary markers amplified by PCR in the presence of one primer complementary to a target microsatellite. Amplification in the presence of nonanchored primers also has been called microsatellite-primed PCR, or MP-PCR, (Meyer et al., 1993).

Among the vast resources of plants, aromatic and medicinal plants are highly beneficial to mankind for supplying medicines and essence. Olfactory gland bearing aromatic plants are few and many of them are located mainly in tropics and sub-tropics. Ecological conditions in the tropics are so conducive for such plants that out of 75,000 edible plants, majority are found in this region. (Chai et al., 1979, Jong, 1979)

Among the aromatic plants, kewda (Pandanus fascicularis Lam.), a common species of screwpine, is commercially important for its highly aromatic male spadices used in the production of highly prized kewda perfumes. Kewda attar, water and oil (rooh kewda) are the important perfumery products. Kewda attar blends well with most of the fancy perfumes, in preparation of lotions, cosmetics, soaps, hair oils, agarbatis (incense sticks), scenting clothes and flavouring betel masala, chewing tobacco and bouquets. Kewda water is used for flavouring various foods, confectionaries, sweets, syrups and soft drinks. The oil and attar are considered as stimulant, antispasmodic and administered for headache and rheumatism (Chopra et al., 1956). The kewda is mentioned frequently in Tamil classics as having flowers which neutralize the foul fish odour pervading the sea coast with their strong perfume. Jehangir in his memoirs, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, described kewda flower for its strong and penetrating scent, which even obscures that of musk (Gandhi, 1989).

Odisha state lying between 17^o 52′ N to 22^o 45′ N latitude and 81^o 50′ E to 87^o 50′ E longitude has a prosperous agriculture. Nearly 75 % of its working population are either cultivators or agricultural labourers and remaining 25 % are engaged in the categories of household industry and other works (Anonymous, 1988). The wastelands occupy 13.79 % of the total area of Odisha and are mostly scattered throughout the state. The areas of wastelands in the state mainly accounted for the hilly slopes, degraded forests, over grazed revenue wastelands, oil eroded valleys, drought stricken pastures, saline and marshy lands, etc. The changes in land use leading to creation of wastelands include overgrazing forest degradation and development of marginal cropland due to flood, drought and soil erosion etc. (Fig. 1).

Kewda (Pandanus fascicularis Lam.) is a native of the old world extending from Africa to Australia (Chittenden, 1956; Lorus and Milne, 1967; Mott, 1975). About 600 species of Pandanus are widely distributed in the moist tropics of the old world and kewda is the most widespread species being recorded from Mauritius Islands in the west to Polynesian and Micronesian Islands in the east (Deshaprabhu, 1966).

It occupies an important position in the mythology of Melanesian, Polynesian and Micronesian Islands (Massal and Barrau, 1956). Kewda has been mentioned in the Indian mythology with several available legends. In Skandha Puran, it is mentioned that Ketaki (P. odorattisimus L.f.) flower is unfit to worship Shiva (Bhattacharjee, 1987). As regards to popularity of Kewda, one of the Gujarati tribal songs says that the sun rises behind the Kewda tree, the moon applies antimony to its eyes, the night is lit with soft moon light. Another mythological legend mentioned that during Satya Yuga, there was a fight between Brahma and Vishnu to know, to prove their greatness. Lord Shiva decided a simple method that the one, who can see his head or his feet, shall be greater than the other. Shiva disappeared and became so great that Brahma and Vishnu couldn’t see his head or feet and searched in different directions. Vishnu went up to patal, but couldn’t find his feet and Brahma had gone up to the highest peak and could not see the head of Shiva. On the returned way, Bramha found a Kewda flower and claimed that he had brought the flower from the head of Lord Shiva. On questioning by Vishnu, Kewda flower also replied that she was adorned by Shiva (Gandhi, 1989).

Kewda is exclusively propagated through ground suckers and leaf bearing terminal cuttings. In kewda growing areas, predominantly the terminal shoot cuttings are used in commercial plantations. However, the seeds are also capable to germinate and give rise to plants, but it is not in practice due to hard mesocarp and seed coat (Bailey, 1950, Deshaprabhu, 1966, Mott, 1975, Maharana and Jagadev, 1993).

Seed propagation

In kewda, the flowers develop into berries, which fuse to form a multiple fruit. The receptacle and bracts are included in the fruit. The seeds are deep seated and very difficult to extract, hence seeds are sown along with the fibrous drupes. Each drupe contains 2-9 seeds. Seeds collected from ripe fruits are sown during spring. The seeds normally, take about 3 months for germination due to the hard seed coat and impervious fibrous covering. Experimentally, it was observed that one hour sulphuric acid scarification treatment of the drupes reduced the germination period by about one month increasing the germination percentage as compared to direct sowing, however, scarification for more than one hour was deterimental (Table 14) (Maharana and Jagadev, 1993). Bailey (1950) reported that seed soaking in tepid water for 24 hours would aid the germination. The seed propagated plants (Plate-27) take about 2-3 years more for flowering as compared to vegetatively propagated plants.

The world trade in flavour and fragrances in 1987 was US $ 7,000 million and at present, it is estimated at more than $ 10,000 million annually. In 1975, perfume was used by one woman in ten, but today it is used by eight out of ten women; even reticent Japanese women are adopting the habit (Anonymous, 1995 c). The average annual industry growth rate in perfumes of India is valued at about US $ 20 million with an annual growth rate of 12% (Murty, 1993),while the UK market is Rs. 2000 crores and the US market supersedes it by Rs. 4000 crores (Walia, 1997). However, the domestic luxury perfume market is estimated to grow at a rate of 20-25 % (Biswas, 2012). Besides domestic market, India earns a lot of foreign exchange from the export of total essential oils and perfumes and is fast growing as it is showed from the trends in export earnings of Rs. 11.1 corers in 1982-83 rose to 4-fold in 1986-87 of Rs. 41.1 crores (CHEMEXCIL, 1988). According to a market survey report, Ahmed (1999) reported that the daily turn over of the attar market in India is more than 50 crores.

Middle East countries continue to be the big buyers of our traditional perfumes. Kewda flavour which is used in pan masala and tobacco is a familiar one in this part of the world. Kewda essence, being one of the few flavouring oils, has a good scope for export to other developed countries where the food flavouring industry is well developed. India is the leading producer of kewda perfumes in the world and the market for kewda perfumes is fast expanding specifically in the Arab countries. India exported the kewda water of Rs. 266.2 lakhs in 1986-87 which rose to Rs. 276.4 lakhs in 1987-88 (CHEMEXCIL, 1990). Anonymous (2007) reported that about 140 distilleries (bhattis), both local and outsider, earn about Rs.1.3 crore by way of extraction charges and annually they extract 332 kgs of kewda oil (Rs.8.3 crore), 7823 kgs of kewda attar (Rs.15.65 crores) and 150 MTs of kewda water (Rs.4.47 crore), the total coming to around Rs.28 crore. For extracting attar , the extractors use about Rs. 8 crore worth of sandal wood oil procured mainly from other states, while Rs.18 crore goes to the plantation owners as flower cost and to the flower collectors.

I. General information

1. Formal type of garden is laid out in a symmetrical or a geometrical pattern
2. Features of a formal garden are trimmed formal hedges, cypress, ashoka trees
3. Informal type of garden in which all plants and features are arranged in a natural way
4. Wild garden was laid out by William Robinson
5. Examples for formal type of gardens are Mughal, Persian, Indian and French style
6. Examples for informal type of gardens are English and Japanese garden
7. Main features of English garden are lawn, herbaceous border and rockery
8. Main features of Italian garden are massive flight of marble stairs, decorative urns, fountains
9. Mughal type of garden is a replica of ancient Persian garden

Introduction

Solar air heating is the conversion of solar radiation to thermal heat. The thermal heat is absorbed and carried by air which is delivered to a living or working space. The transparent property of air means that it does not directly absorb effective amounts of solar radiation, so an intermediate process is required to make this energy transfer possible and deliver the heated air into a living space (Fig.10.1). The technologies designed to facilitate this process are known as solar air heaters. Solar air heating technologies use only free, renewable and clean energy and can help defray the rising cost of conventional energy.

Life cycle cost analysis

Economics of solar energy devices can be calculated through life cycle cost (LCC) analysis. Total life cycle cost of a device is comprised of capital cost, maintenance cost, replacement costs for damagaed components and operational cost. Before adding these above costs, all future costs (C) are converted to present worth considering the relative rate of inflation (i) and discount rate (d).

Where, PW is the present worth of any future cost, i is the relative rate of inflation and d is the discount rate per year and n is the time period in years. Relative rate of inflation accounts for the escalted increase or decrease in prices of a commodity in comparison to general inflation rate. For any commodity, if the price escalation is expected as per the general inflation rate then relative rate of inflation is considered zero. In general case, relative rate of inflation is considered zero. Discount rate accounts the real value of money in future and in most of the economies of the world it is about 8-12%, and therefore 10% is considered in most analyis. The discount rate also refers to the interest rate used in discounted cash flow (DCF) analysis to determine the present value of future cash flows. The discount rate in DCF analysis takes into account not just the time value of money, but also the risk or uncertainty of future cash flows; the greater the uncertainty of future cash flows, the higher the discount rate. A discount rate of 10 % per year would mean that in real terms it makes no difference to a farmer whether he has ? 100 now or ? 110 in one year’s time. Conversely, a cost of ? 110 one year from now has a present worth of ? 100. For a future single cost in n^th year, the present worth of that cost is calculated using Eq (1). However, for future multiple payments, costs are to be converted to present worth for each year and then needs to be cumulated. For calculation of annualized life cycle cost (ALCC) of solar devices, annuity factor (AF) needs to be calculated for a period of life cycle of the device as follows:

Site-specific weed control technologies practiced in precision farming are defined as machinery or equipment embedded with technologies that detect weeds growing in a crop and take action to maximise the chances of successfully controlling them taking into account predefined factors such as economics.Some of the commercial hardware and software developed for precision agriculture practices comprise tools for weed mapping and control software that adapts spraying to local weed occurrence. However, few farmers have adopted sitespecific weed management, although several studies have shown that weed occurrence and density varies significantly within a farm or a field. Site-specific weed control techniques have gained interest in the precision farming community over the years. Managing weeds on a subfield level requires measuring the varying density of weeds within a field. Decision models aid in the selection and adjustment of the treatments, depending on the weed infestation. The weed control can be done either with herbicides or mechanically. A site-specific herbicide application technology can save large amounts of herbicides. Mechanical weed control techniques adapting to the weed situation in the field are applicable to a wide spectrum of crops.

A system for the discrimination of different weed species and crops from images is done which generates weed maps automatically. Models for the yield effect of weeds are developed and applied in on-farm-research experimental setups. Economic weed thresholds are derived and used for an herbicide application with a patch sprayer.Herbicide use has not eliminated weed problems in agriculture and the need for manual weed removal is still an issue within specialty crop systems, particularly during the first several weeks of crop emergence when competition for resources is greatest.

Precision agriculture is a powerful technology with potentially important applications to weed management. However, growers should remember good agronomic practices, including preventing weed infestations, managing herbicides wisely to prevent resistance, and minimizing environmental impact associated with weed management. Weeds, and methods used to control weeds, can have negative economic and environmental impacts. With precision agriculture, growers can take advantage of the patchy nature of weeds by targeting management efforts only where they are needed instead of wasting expensive and potentially hazardous inputs where weeds are not present. Weeds are patchy because weed spread, survival, and reproduction are variable within a field and over time. Weed patches stay in about the same place from year to year, even though weed density within a patch may vary

Plants require proper environment for its growth and development. If environment is not suitable crop would not do well. To ensure proper environment to commercial crops for their better growth and development covered structures are used which provide microclimate appropriate for their growth and development. Growing of crops under such protective structures, also known as greenhouses, is termed as greenhouse technology. The structures harness solar radiation for photosynthesis in plants or can be provided with artificial lights (LEDs) for the purpose. The technology embraces many aspects of farming such as modelling of structures, agronomic practices for the production of the crop and the commercial viability of the venture. The technology ensures crop production in a cover more or less independent of natural prevailing environment. The covering or cladding permits desirable aspect of sun and air and help in modifying crop production environment inside. The modification of environment is aimed of creating micro-climate inside the structure/greenhouse most appropriate for the growth and development of the crop.

Hence greenhouse can be defined as a framed or inflated structure with claddings like glass polyethylene sheets, poly carbonates, fibre reinforced plastics and others in which plants are grown by creating microclimate conducive to crop for its growth and development with or without automation and mechanization. The purpose of growing crops under greenhouse conditions is to extend their cropping season and to protect them from adverse environmental conditions, such as extreme temperatures, precipitation and pests. A large number of greenhouses/poly houses have come up in almost all states of India. Though in infancy but greenhouse cultivation particularly in horticulture crops and nursery production is visible.

Soil is the main growing medium. Natural as well as synthetic substitutes to soils are cropping up. Under greenhouse cultivation growing medium is generally top soil as used in open field/traditional farming. The practices of soil preparation for planting crops are more or less same as under open field. Generally, crops are planted on raise beds. As under open conventional farming soil preparation are made as per the crops or their varieties/hybrids to be grown. To enrich the soil with nutrients soil is tested for its physical and chemical properties and amended accordingly keeping in view the crop requirement. The soil composition is checked with each crop cycle and amended as per requirement of next crop. To avoid the harmful microbes and insects build up in the soil it is advisable to solarize or fumigate the greenhouse soil each year during hottest month of the year. Soil solarisation is an environment friendly soil pathogen management method and practiced widely in north India.

Soil Solarisation

Soil solarisation is an environment friendly method of using solar thermal power for controlling pests such as soil borne plant pathogens including fungi, bacteria, nematodes, and insect and mite pests along with weed seeds and seedlings in the moist soil by mulching the soil usually with a transparent polyethylene cover, to trap solar energy in greenhouses. It may also be described as a method of decontaminating soil or soil disinfestation using sunlight or solar thermal power. This energy/temperature causes desirable physical, chemical, and biological changes in the soil.

The variety of greenhouses and greenhouse material, equipment and accessories are so many. However, there are certain basic materials that essential in almost all types of green houses. These are

Structural framing materials

Such materialsinclude low maintenance non-heat conducting timber; strong and durable galvanized steel; or light, low-maintenance and sturdy aluminium alloys. Though plastic pipe frames are usable, they are not very strong to withstand snow load or strong wind sheering forces. What one should choose as the framing material would be determined by the material one wishes to use as glazing, his budget and the permanence of the structure one desires. Aluminium is a popular material for greenhouse framework because it is relatively lightweight, rustproof, affordable and easy to assemble. The downside is that it is not a good insulating material and in very cold weather, heat loss from the metal frame could inflate your heating bill. Also, you would need to look for sturdy frames if your greenhouse is located in an area that experiences high winds. Condensation could also occur on an aluminium frame. Wooden structural frameworks for garden greenhouses are also a popular choice for its aesthetic value, natural feel and the ’warmth’ it exudes. It is an easy material to work with especially if you are not using a greenhouse kit for building. Some greenhouse owners would settle for nothing else as they believe it is the only material that complements the natural beauty of plants inside the greenhouse! Wood is a good insulating material so it will not allow heat loss in cold weather. Reinforced wood has superior strength and has an excellent load bearing capacity. Being a natural material, it has the potential to develop mildew or disease and offer a haven to tiny pests. So, when you choose wood to build the framework of your greenhouse, be sure that you pick a high quality hardy wood such as redwood, cypress or cedar. Also, treat wood with non-hazardous chemicals so that your plants are not adversely affected. The preservatives used for wooden greenhouse frames should be pressure treated, salt type or copper naphthenate. Copper naphthenate is a general use preservative used for pressure treating utility poles and timber. It is known to be very effective in preventing mould, mildew and dry rot. It works very well against wood-damaging fungi and insect pests. Pentachlorophenol is a restricted use wood preservative and is toxic to plants and humans. It is not available to the general public and poles or timber treated with it are not suitable for use in a greenhouse. PVC pipe can also be used as support for small greenhouses that are to be covered with polyethylene, but PVC requires additional support to withstand strong winds. Being flexible, PVC can be used particularly well in hoop houses. Though it has the advantage of offering insulation and, if UV treated, are long-lasting, they are not good at bearing the load of hanging baskets and shelving to any appreciable degree. PVC that is treated to be resistant to ultraviolet radiation is also known as UPVC.

About 80% of the world population live in developing countries and are dependent on agriculture. Agricultural products, just after harvesting, are dried to the safe moisture level. Open solar drying for drying agricultural products is being practiced since ages throughout the world. Due to its several drawbacks as danger of (dust, rain, ultra-violet rays, birds, animals etc.), advance technique, i.e. greenhouse drying, is being adopted for drying crops to reduce the drying time and increase the quality of the food products.

Drying involves a heat and mass transfer phenomenon in which heat energy supplied to the product surface is utilized in two ways: (i) to increase the product surface temperature in the form of sensible heat and (ii) to vaporize the moisture present in product through the provision of the latent heat of vaporization. The removal of moisture from the interior of the product takes place due to induced vapour pressure difference between the product and surrounding medium. The moisture from the interior diffuses to the product surface to replenish the evaporated surrounding moisture.

The working principle of greenhouse drying is in which the product is placed in trays receiving the solar radiations through the plastic cover and moisture is removed by natural convection or forced convection.

Greenhouse drying are being adopted to reduce the losses and to increase the quality of the dried products. Solar energy is the most promising power source of energy for drying of agricultural products. Most of the farmers adopt open sun drying because it is abundant and inexpensive. But the open sun dried products are also subjected to remarkable losses due to environment. Losses of fruits and vegetables are estimated to be 30%-40% during drying under open sunlight. The post-harvest losses can be reduced by adopting advanced means of drying, i.e. greenhouse drying. The greenhouse dryer can be operated in natural and forced mode as required. Studies reveal that the greenhouse dried products are of superior quality and better colour retention as compared to open sun drying.

Flooding

Flooding affects both above and below ground ecosystem processes in greenhouses. Below-ground changes may be less obvious, they are as important as the above-ground changes. Soil microorganisms are sensitive to disturbance, and shifts in soil microbial community structure are expected when anaerobic conditions develop from flooding. The useful aerobic microbes are destroyed by flooding. It takes time to built-up their population in the soil to benefit plants. Due to anaerobic condition created by flooding in greenhouse plant roots in soil are not able to breath, function and hence wilting of plants occurs. Flood irrigation in excess create flood like condition in greenhouses at time. Excess water in soils is a major factor affecting plant survival and functioning. In saturated soils, the supply of atmospheric oxygen into the soil is curtailed and various facultative and obligate anaerobic microorganisms use oxidized compounds as electron acceptors for respiration, thus converting them to reduced forms. The reduction and the associated processes influence plant survival, growth and functioning in wetlands. Flood irrigation should always be just wet the soil not flood inviting stagnation of water.

A chain of reactions is initiated upon soil flooding leading to reduced soil redox potential conditions. These reactions include physical, chemical and biological processes that have significant implications on plants growth. Physical processes include restriction of atmospheric gas diffusion in the soil leading to depletion of soil oxygen and accumulation of carbon dioxide. Shortly after flooding, the limited supply of oxygen in soil pore spaces is depleted rapidly by roots, microorganisms, and soil reductants. This process leads to oxygen depletion and reduction in soil oxidation reduction potential followed by a chain of soil chemical changes. The processes that follow include denitrification, reduction of iron, manganese and sulphate, and changing soil pH

12.1 INTRODUCTION

Oil Palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is a heavy feeder and needs a balanced and adequate supply of nutrients for growth and yield. Fertilizer is one of the most costly inputs, which accounts for greater part of production costs in the cultivation of oil palm. Large amount of nutrients are removed by the fruit bunches harvested from the mature palms. It is estimated that 25 tonnes fresh fruit bunches per hectare per year removes 93.5 Kg Nitrogen, 11.0 Kg Phosphorous, 92.7 Kg Potassium, 19.3 Kg Magnesium and 20.3 Kg Calcium.

Economic yields of oil palm are achieved when the supply of nutrients from the soil, palm residues and fertilizers are properly integrated in required quantities. Leaf analysis is an analytical tool for detecting the nutrient requirements in oil palm and other perennial crops, which are slow growing and can provide easily, defined standard leaf material for analysis due to leaf phyllotaxis. Nutrient deficiency symptoms are also an important means for determining the nutritional problems in oil palm, since the crop presents easily identifiable N, K and Mg deficiency symptoms. However, by the time symptoms are evident, nutrient deficiency might have already affected growth and yield.

Also the nutrient supply may be insufficient before the appearance of leaf symptoms. So there is a need for a thorough inspection of the leaf canopy to corroborate the results of leaf analysis and identify the areas with severe nutrient deficiencies. The research on oil palm nutrition was carried out under rainfed conditions at Palode, Kerala and irrigated conditions at Pedavegi, Andhra Pradesh.

In India, a great variety of soils ranging from red sandy loams/sandy clay loams (Alfisols), alluvial silt loams (Inceptisols / Entisols), heavy black soils (Vertisols) and acidic red laterite soils (Oxisols) are put to oil palm cultivation. In Andhra Pradesh, it is grown in red sandy, red loamy, red loam with clay base, deltaic alluvium pH - 6.5 to 9.0. In Karnataka, it is grown in red and brown sandy loams and black clayey soils, with pH - 6.5 to 9.0. Red soils, red loamy soils and clay loam soils are used for growing oil palm in Tamil Nadu. Laterite soils are used for oil palm cultivation in Kerala.

27.1 INTRODUCTION

In India, the horticulture sector contributes around 29 per cent of the GDP and 37 per cent of the total exports of agricultural commodities from about 13.08% of area. India has been placed as the second largest producer of fruits and vegetables; largest producer and consumer of cashew nut, tea, spices; third largest producer of coconut; fourth largest producer and consumer of rubber and sixth largest producer of coffee in the world. Several new programmes area in operation and significant developments in area expansion, production, value-addition and exports have taken place. Today, as a result of better synergy between research agencies, technological and policy initiatives by the governmental agencies, proactive participation of private players and higher degree of diversification to horticulture, this sector has emerged as a sustainable and viable proposition for even the small and marginal farmers including different stakeholders in the commodity chain. In spite of the remarkable progress made in the horticulture Sector in India, there is lot of scope in improvement in safety and quality aspects of horticultural produce.

The concept of biosafety encompasses a range of measures, policies and procedures for minimizing potential risks likely to appear to the environment and human health. Such safeguards must be put in place now. Biosafety is currently being promoted in a variety of ways by industry, governments and civil society. Quality and safety become prime concern because most of the horticultural produce are consumed daily in fresh, cooked and processed form and contribute major share in our daily diet. To ensure biosafety and quality of horticultural produce we need to ensure: a)Supply of quality inputs, b)Adoption of good cultural practices, c) Handling and processing of horticultural produce in scientific /hygienic manner, d)Packing, storage, transportation and delivery etc. in such a way that it reaches at consumers’ table without deteriorating the quality.

To ensure such aspects various preventive and certification measures have been initiated by government and certification agencies all over the globe including India , such as prevention of Food Adulteration Act 1954, Agricultural Produce Marketing Act, 1937, Food Safety Standards Association of India (FSSAI), Food Safety System Certification (FSSC:2200), International Food Certification (IFC), Food Chain Traceability, Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP), Food Product Orders (FPO), etc. The major emphasis under these certifications/regulations is to ensure quality and safety of the produce and minimize the risks by reducing the biological, chemical, physical hazards like microorganism contamination, level of heavy metal/chemicals/ drugs beyond the critical limits, residual effects of toxic substances etc. Brief of a few certification/regulations are listed below.

Abstract

The paper deals with taxonomy, ethnobotany and threat status of lesser known liana species Hodgsonia heteroclita (Roxb.) Hook.f. & Thomson. The local people use in terms of foods and rites and its role in ecosystem have been reported. Local people used the seeds of liana as food because of high nutritive value. Threat assessment has been following IUCN version 3.1 to evaluate the threat status of the species in Sikkim Himalaya. Out of the five criteria, data on two criteria could be collected and was used to evaluate the threat category of the species. The criteria used for threat assessment were (a) reduction in population and (b) geographical range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) or B2 (area of occupancy) or both. Considering the population status and geographical range of the species, it has been classified as “Least Concern” (A1acd; B2ab(ii,iv)).