eChapters

Techniques to Conduct Digestion Trial Under Stall Conditions

Digestibilty definition. The digestibility of a food is most accurately defined as that  proportion which is not excreted in the faeces and which is , therefore, assumed to be absorbed by the animal. It is commonly expressed in terms of dry matter and as a percentage, the digestibility coefficient. For example, if a cow ate 11 kg of hay containing 10 kg of dry matter and excreted 4 kg dry matter in its faeces, the digestibility of the hay dry matter would be

Introduction

Germfree (GF) animal is one which is isolated from all demonstrable living microorganisms like bacteria, virus, fungus, parasite, algae, yeast. The aim of GF work is isolation (Prevent contamination from air, water, food and environment). It can be attained mechanically and scientifically. GF animal research began in 1895 but in 1897 Nuttall and Thierfelder started to rear GF guinea pigs in their lab. Chicks are classical animal for GF research. Rats and mice are reared through reproduction. Permanent breeding colonies of these have been established.

Synonyms : Axenic animal –meaning free from strange. Gnotobiotic – known life derived from Greek word-Gnoto & biota means known flora & fauna.

Gnotobiote (Gnotobiotic animal ) : Is an animal derived by aseptic caesarian or sterile tatching of eggs that is restored & continuously maintained with Germ free technique under isolator condition in which flora & fauna is clearly defined.

Flora animal: A gnotobiote maintained under isolator condition in international association with one or more known types of microorganisms.

Committee recognized throughout world on laboratory animal called International Committee on Laboratory Animal (ICLA) This committee is responsible to make the rules and regulations and laws which governs production, maintenance and usage of laboratory animal. This committee has defined Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) animal which are free of specified micro organisms and parasites but not necessarily free of the ones which are not specified. Example pasteurella free SPF animal.

Synonyms of SPF Animals

• Disease free animal
• Healthy animal
• Pathogen free animal
• Clean animal
• Caesarian derived animal

The main aim for the production of GFA is for isolation of animal free of all organism.

Weeds can be considered a significant problem because they tend to decrease crop yields by increasing competition for water, sunlight and nutrients while serving as host plants for pests and diseases. Since the invention of herbicides, farmers have used these chemicals to eradicate weeds from their fields. Using herbicides not only increased crop yields but also reduced the labor required to remove weeds. Today, some farmers have a renewed interest in organic methods of managing weeds since the widespread use of agro-chemicals has resulted in purported environment and health problems. It has also been found that in some cases herbicides use can cause some weed species to dominate fields because the weeds develop resistance to herbicides. In addition, some herbicides are capable of destroying weeds that are harmless to crops, resulting in a potential decrease in biodiversity on farmers. It is important to understand that under an organic system of weed control, weeds could never be eliminated but only managed. In organic agriculture weeds are the resources as they are mostly native to the field/areas of existence (Children’s of the soil)

One of the primary targets of genome analysis is to manipulate it at the level of genes, the units of inheritance. Genes, as explained earlier have distinct positions and sequence configurations in the genome which are expressed in the form of RNA or proteins controlling the functionality and identity of an organism. To understand the function of a gene several methodologies may be adopted. As genes have conserved sequences like promoters preceding the reading frame, initiation sequences, exon-intron junctions and end sequences, these features can be used to screen genome sequence to identify the regions containing genes. An open reading frame (ORF) is the sequence of a gene for which functions have been assigned, i.e., the sequence codes for a protein or RNA. On the other hand, an unassigned reading frame (URF) is a sequence which has structural features of a gene, but no function has yet been assigned to it.

New techniques and approaches to groundwater studies are always in deep concern with the hydrogeomorphologists. The designing of new techniques or adapting existing techniques with better enhancement to solve practical problems in the study of groundwater are of central concern. One of the recent technical developments include the mathematical model of groundwater flow that has become the most widely used computer-based model in the groundwater industry. Techniques to identify and date recently recharged water that is useful in characterizing the susceptibility of hydrogeologic environments to contamination are utilized by various research groups all over the world.

Geophysical methods for determining the hydraulic properties of fractured rocks gained the importance in the hydrogeomorphic studies. Predicting the movement of water and contaminants through fractured rocks has been one of the most challenging problems in hydrogeomorphology. Besides conventional and above mentioned techniques the techniques discussed in this chapter are Remote Sensing, Geographical Informational system (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), Digital Elevation Model (DEM), Groundwater Information System (GWIS), Digital Surface Terrain Modelling (DSTM), Multicriteria evaluation (MCE) and Thermal Infra Red (TIR) Mapping and Microwave Data.

Common rules for fine laboratory techniques call for:

    ·    A laboratory should have a record and a complete up to-date record of all the equipments and their operating manual.
    ·    A laboratory should have a record and detailed up to-date record of all the chemicals including the name of manufacturer with their     grade and arranged alphabetically in specific area
    ·    Strong acid and bases in safe area.
    ·    Chloroform, alcohol which are volatile or toxic must be stored in fume hood.

2.1. GERMPLASM COLLECTION
a. Propagation techniques
There are four main propagation techniques that are used in plant reproduction for most plants, viz;
• Seed
• Cuttings
• Marcotting
• Grafting
Note: That not all plants can be propagated by all the four methods mention above.

Introduction

During the last decade, there has been a dramatic increase in use of artificial insemination (AI) by commercial swine producers in many European countries. Till 1990, less than 7% of sows & gilt in the USA were bred by Artificial Insemination. Today, over 70% of the animals are bred by AI. Maybe in a couple of years all swine producers will probably utilize this technology.

In India, it is still in infant stage. Some research work has already been done in scattered ways in various Research Institutes but it is still in the four walls of the laboratory. Some Govt. farms have been doing AI in swine with liquid semen.

Pig is the most important livestock in all Northeastern Hill States and there is no superior indigenous germplasm available in this region. Productivity of local pigs is very low. All through, improvement programmes had undertaken in different state Govt. farms, Central Govt. farms through upgrading with the help of suitable exotic pig breeds like Hampshire, Large Black, and Large White Yorkshire etc. Superior germplasm was distributed to farmers for better productivity. But, improvement till date is not impressive due to lack of superior germless, high feed cost, lack of breeder farmers and lack of incentives to the poor farmers. Maintenance of breeding boar for small farmers is very expensive not only in individual capacity but also on community basis. So, AI is the only tool for quicker, safer, quicker and economic why out for swine improvement like cattle.

1. HAND EMASCULATION AND POLLINATION

The male part of seed parent is removed by hand before anthesis to check the self pollination from the crop plants with bisexual flower having fertile male and female part. This process is known as emasculation. These emasculated flowers are then pollinated by the pollens collected from pollinator parent to produce hybrid seed (Fig. 1). Eg. Cotton, tomato, brinjal.

The measurement of greenhouse gases (GHGs) has been started during middle of the last century. Initially, CO₂ and water vapour were measured with other common meteorological variables like temperature, sunshine hours, rainfall, humidity etc., for monitoring the weather condition and pollution. The absolute or relative concentrations of gasses in atmosphere are used to measure basically for monitoring purpose. However, limited studies were dealt with actual gaseous exchanges of fluxes. The concern about gaseous flux measurement and GHGs-exchanges started after 1900s when people got concerned about anthropogenic pollution, environmental sustainability and climate change issues. The GHGs-exchanges in earth-atmosphere systems primarily occur due to change in meteorological variables, soil responses and physiological activities of crops. If we are interested for environmental data inventories, then absolute GHGs concentrations of atmosphere at a specific time is required. However, presently researchers, students, environmentalists, climate scientists are primarily interested for quantitative data on GHGs fluxes and or GHGs-exchanges. They want to know what and how much quantity of a particular GHG is emitting from unit area at unit time.

Flux refers to the amount of any gas emitted per unit area per unit time. The dimension of that is M A^-11 T^-1. (Where, M= Mass/ Quantity; A= Area; T= Time). The SI unit of flux is g m²s^-1. Therefore, flux is a vector. It has magnitude as well as direction. As for example positive flux of CO₂ from earth surface means, CO₂ is moving out from earth surface to atmosphere. If it moves in opposite direction then the flux would be negative. In that case CO₂ gas may be absorbed by the soil surface from adjacent atmosphere. Similarly, GHGs fluxes of earth surface are either positive or negative. Generally, positive GHGs flux refers to emission of GHGs from earth to atmosphere and vice versa.

One of the important aspects of dry flowers is the pleasure of gathering flowers and grasses to make wonderful dried arrangements. The only drawback is that the original colors fade and the floral arrangements can end up looking like a bunch of straw. To enhance the colors of dried flowers, dyeing is advocated. While coloring ferns or small leaves, it is better to work on an aluminum foil or waxed paper so it can collect extra paint, which can be used on another leaf. Leaves should be lightly brushed, and never saturated with paint. The painted specimens are placed on the waxed paper or on a computer paper to dry. Newsprint should not be used.

17.1 Introduction

It is well known fact that planners as well as end users have to consider any resources as technology from economic point of view. Therefore, it is important to have techno – economic analysis of each energy source option. In the feasibility study of particular energy option, three tier judgment approaches is required, which include technical feasibility, economical viability and social acceptability. Hence in the rural energy planning programme one has to considered techno socio economic analysis of an individual energy option. Since in integrated rural energy planning, locally available energy resources are used, presuming that it is socially recognized. Hence in the IREP project, the need and scope of techno economic analysis in terms of economic analysis of different technical feasible options, before between “economic” and “finical” analysis should be kept in mind. An economic analysis is needed to verify that a particular energy source will provide “net benefit” to society as a whole, before its final integration in the energy context, while a financial analysis integrated in the energy practices. In simple words, a financial analysis is concerned with goods and services, money inflow and outflows and the transfer of payments. An economic analysis also considers the social benefits and costs of goods and services which are not traded in a market.

Interest Rate : Provisional Interest rate @ 14.50% p.a. has been taken for evaluation of the project report. However, the sanctioning authority may consider the exact rate of interest applicable, on the date of sanction. Development of farm should be completed within 3 months from first disbursement.
 
Repayment of loan : A five-year repayment programme has been drawn with six months moratorium period, the installments will be monthly starting from 6th month onwards. The applicant has to make tie-up with the local MPCS and the repayment should be routed through the MPCS.

1. Introduction 
The Techno-Economic Analysis (TEA) of nanotechnology-based microalgal biodiesel explores the intersection of nanotechnology and renewable energy production, aiming to assess the economic feasibility and sustainability of integrating nanomaterials into the microalgal biodiesel production process (BlancoCanqui, 2010). As the global demand for sustainable energy sources continues to rise, microalgae have emerged as a promising feedstock for biodiesel production due to their high lipid content and rapid growth rates. Nanotechnology offers innovative solutions to enhance various stages of the microalgal biodiesel production chain, from cultivation and harvesting to lipid extraction and conversion (Moustakas et al., 2020).This introduction provides an overview of the key objectives, methodologies, and implications of conducting a TEA on nanotechnology-based microalgal biodiesel. It outlines the significance of integrating nanomaterials into biodiesel production processes, highlights the potential benefits and challenges associated with nanotechnology adoption, and sets the stage for the subsequent analysis of economic factors and technical considerations (Borowitzka and Moheimani, 2013).The introduction also discusses the broader context of sustainable energy transition and the role of microalgal biodiesel as a renewable alternative to conventional fossil fuels (Gaurav et al., 2017). It emphasizes the importance of evaluating not only the technical feasibility but also the economic viability and environmental sustainability of nanotechnology-enabled biodiesel production methods. By conducting a comprehensive TEA, this study aims to provide valuable insights into the cost-effectiveness, scalability, and market potential of nanotechnology-based microalgal biodiesel, informing strategic decision-making and investment priorities in the renewable energy sector (Gouveia and Oliveira, 2009; McCollum et al., 2018). Through interdisciplinary collaboration and rigorous analysis, the TEA seeks to advance our understanding of the economic and technological factors shaping the future of sustainable biofuel production.

16.1 Introduction

It is well known fact that planners as well as end user’s have to consider any resources as technology from economic point of view. Therefore, it is important to have techno – economic analysis of each energy source option. In the feasibility study of particular energy option, three tier judgement approaches is required, which include technical feasibility, economical viability and social acceptability. Hence in the rural energy planning programme one has to considered techno socio economic analysis of an individual energy option. Since in integrated rural energy planning, locally available energy resources are used, presuming that it is socially recognized. Hence in the IRPE project, the need and scope of techno economic analysis in terms of economic analysis of different technical feasible options, before between “economic” and “financial” analysis should be kept in mind. An economic analysis is needed to verify that a particular energy source will provide “net benefit” to society as a whole, before its final integration in the energy context, while a financial analysis integrated in the energy practices. In simple wards, a financial analysis is concerned with goods and services, money inflow and outflows and the transfer of payments. An economic analysis also considers the social benefits and costs of goods and services which are not traded in a market.

Interest Rate: Provisional Interest rate @ 15.75% p.a. has been taken for evaluation of the project report. However, the exact interest rate will be decided by the sanctioning authority on the date of sanction.

Disbursement of loan: Funds for fodder cultivation and civil construction should be disbursed first. Development of sheds and fodder plots should be completed within 3 months from first disbursement. Then disbursement of 1^st Batch cow (10 animals) will be done. Last disbursement for 2^nd Batch cows (10 animals) should be done after 5-6 months of purchase of 1^st batch cows.

Insurance: The animals and other assets (sheds, equipment) must be insured. Wherever necessary, Risk / Mortality fund may be considered in lieu of dairy insurance.

I. INTRODUCTION

Nations are growing with pace in technology and technological advancements. Till the end of 20th century development was the priority of entire planet earth but in the ending of the 20th century it was realized by almost all countries that development cannot go alone but it has to have the social, economic and environmental concerns. It was realized by the United Nations in Rio Conference on Environment and Development, 1992 that there is need of sustainable development. Now in 21st century the technological advancements are needed to be utilized for saving the planet earth from the curse of climate change and global warming reducing the carbon emissions across the entire planet earth. The argument in this paper is based on, how far technological advancements and technology transfer, by developed countries to developing countries can be facilitated in reduction of the carbon emission and greenhouse gases, through legally binding norms? How there should be synergy in between technologies reducing carbon emission and IPR issues?

The agricultural sector is undergoing a transformative revolution driven by technological advancements. This article provides an in-depth exploration of how modern technologies are reshaping farming practices, enhancing productivity, and promoting sustainability. Key innovations such as precision agriculture, biotechnology, automation, and digital farming tools are discussed in detail. The article examines the benefits and challenges associated with these technologies, their impact on different aspects of farming, and the future potential of continued technological integration in agriculture. It highlights the critical role that technology plays in meeting the global food demand, addressing climate change, and ensuring economic viability for farmers.

India is the largest producer of pulses and contributes around 25% of total global pulse production. In addition, it is also world’s biggest consumer (27% of world consumption) and importer (14%) of pulses in the world. Pulses account for around 20 per cent of the area under food grains and contribute around 7-10 per cent of the total food grains production in India. Though, pulses are grown in both Kharif and Rabi seasons, Rabi pulses contribute more than 60 per cent of the total production. Gram is the most dominant pulse having a share of around 40 per cent in the total production followed by tur/arhar at 15 to 20 per cent and urad and moong at around 8-10 per cent each. Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka are the top five pulses producing states in India. Considering the nutritional importance of pulses and its products in Indian diet, the production and availability are not sufficient. Since independence, grain production has grown dramatically but pulses production and its availability have declined. On the other hand, the per capita availability of cereal and millets has increased in spite of a four-fold increase in population. The consumption ratio of cereal-to-pulse has risen from 6:1 to 12:1.

Pulse processing is the major need of developing nations as it is the most acceptable and cheap source of protein and hence can help combating Protein Energy Malnutrition (PEM). In addition, the identification and recognition of various newer and improved processing methods can provide the basis for further development of legume processing industry. Traditionally, home cooking is applied for consumption of pulses since ages. Modernization has no doubt created a lot of ease and developed various techniques to make different edible forms of legumes/pulses. Many advancements have been happened in traditional processing methods (milling, fermentation, roasting, boiling, steaming etc). and resulted into new products. Improved techniques for efficient milling of legumes into dhal (dehusked splits) are an important area of investigation. A systematic method that eliminates wastes and losses has great significance in the Indian dietary pattern. New systems for processing legumes come under several main categories, namely, improved decortications and milling techniques; quick-cooking pulses; canned pulses; pulse flakes, expanded snack foods etc. Such new and innovative processing technologies presented in this chapter can be applied and used in developing nations. Present chapter will discuss both traditional and non-traditional means of pulse processing.