eChapters

Introduction
 
Maintaining and restoring the quality of air, water and soil is one of the great challenges of our time. Most countries face serious environmental problems, such as the availability of drinking water, the treatment of waste and wastewater, air pollution and the contamination of soil and groundwater. There are two main approaches to these problems: the first is to control pollution at source to minimize or eliminate waste production or harmful emissions; the second is to remedy the pollutants that accumulate in the environment. Considering the enormous scale of soil and groundwater contamination, the complexity of the task seems intractable. In many cases, conventional remediation and treatment technologies have shown only limited effectiveness in reducing the levels of pollutants, especially in soil and water (Rickerby and Morrison, 2007).

Introduction

Food packaging is a critical technology addressing the ever-increasing demands for convenience, freshness, ease, shelf-life, safety and security of food products.
 
The main purpose of food packaging is to protect the food from microbial and chemical contamination, oxygen, water vapor and light. The type of packaging used therefore has an important role in determining the shelf-life of the food. Nanotechnology can be intervened to achieve the purpose of food packaging and it will become one of the most powerful forces for innovation in the food packaging industry.

Introduction

Fruits are important sources of vitamins, carbohydrates, fiber and sugar. A large variety of fruits are grown in India, of which mango, banana, citrus, guava, grape, pineapple and apple are the major ones. In India, grapes occupies fifth position amongst fruit crops with a production of 16.77 million tonnes from an area of 0.64 million ha (FAO, 2009). The total grape export from India during the year 2007-08 was 96,723 tonnes worth Rs 317.84 crores. (APEDA, 2009). Grape is an excellent source of many nutrients and phytochemicals, able to contribute to a healthy diet. Grapefruit is a good source of vitamin C and pectin fiber. The major varieties of grapes grown in India are Thomson seedless, Sonaka, Anab-e-Shahi, Perlette, Banglore blue, Pusa seedless, Beauty seedless etc. (NRCG, 2009). Red grapes are grown in large quantities, especially for wine and juice production. Grapes are used for making jam, juice, jelly, vinegar, wine, grape seed extracts, raisins, grape seed oil and some kinds of candy.

Introduction

Fungicides are biocidal chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill or inhibit fungi or fungal spores. An insecticide is a pesticide used against insects. Pyrethroids are widely used insecticides in agriculture as they control pests and diseases effectively in plants. Because of their low biodegradability and high persistence, they are extensively found in environmental samples such as air, water, soil, sediments, food and biological tissues [1-4]. Moreover, these chemicals induce cancer and act as endocrine disrupters in several organisms due to their high degree of toxicity. Although the use of most pyrethroids has been prohibited or limited in developed countries, they are used in many developing and under developed countries for controlling of pests and insecticides [5-8].

Introduction

Spoilage in agricultural products due to mould growth can occur at various stages of production and storage and is significant in terms of trade economics, food safety and public health (Shephard, 2008). It has been reported that 5–10 % of agricultural products in the world are spoiled by mould contamination to the extent that they cannot be consumed by humans or animals. Mould growth decreases the quality of food and also creates a potential risk for human health because of the production of toxic secondary metabolites known as “mycotoxins”. Foods contaminated by mycotoxins, when consumed by humans and animals causes a disease called “mycotoxicosis”, resulting in death (Wagacha and Muthomi, 2008).

Introduction

Plant diseases are one of the causes of concern in agriculture and horticulture industry. Estimated global crop loss due to plant diseases exceeds hundred billion US$ worldwide (Orke et al. 1994; Narayanasamy, 2010). Plant diseases are caused by microorganism such as fungi, bacteria, viral, viroids and phytoplasma. Most of the plant pathogens are transmitted through seed or planting material, which can spread secondarily through vectors and lead to severe loss to the crop. Among plant diseases, viral diseases cause serious crop losses and affect the quality of products, while the use of virus- free seeds and planting stocks results in a substantial increase in agricultural crop production (Waterworth & Hadidi, 1998; Strange& Scott, 2005).

Introduction

Crops diseases are caused by bacteria, virus, fungi and phytoplasmas. The detection of pathogenic bacteria and viruses in plants, planting material, vectors or natural reservoirs is essential to ensure safe and sustainable agriculture. The molecular based techniques, have evolved significantly during recent past that  allows the rapid and reliable detection of pathogens. The detection and diagnosis of plant pathogens is essential to take control measures and subsequently for eradication of the disease that causes.  Molecular detection is largely based on PCR or RT-PCR amplification following purification of nucleic acids from the samples, with the extraction of the target DNA.

Introduction

Biosensor technology is a powerful alternative to conventional analytical techniques, harnessing the specificity and sensitivity of biological systems in small, low cost devices. Despite the promising biosensors developed in research laboratories, there are not many reports of applications in agricultural monitoring. The authors review biosensor technology and discuss the different bio-receptor systems and methods of transduction. The difference between a biosensor and a truly integrated biosensor system are defined and the main reasons for the slow technology transfer of biosensors to the market place are reported. Biosensor research and development has been directed mainly towards health care, environmental applications and the food industry. The most commercially important application is the hand-held glucose meter used by diabetics. The agricultural / veterinary testing market has seen a number of diagnostic tests but no true biosensor systems have made an impact.

Introduction

Since past decades, the application of nanotechnology in the areas of medicine, materials science and electronics have been widely accepted and appreciated due to its potential and benefits.  However, only during the recent years, researchers from other disciplines have started to see the potential applications of nanoscience in the field of agriculture (Robinson and Morrison, 2009). Recently, a generalized and process based framework to enable identification and characterization of the outputs (publications, patents etc.), and map them to the different agricultural research theme areas through the filter of links in the agri-value chain were developed by Kalpana Shastri et al., (2010) from National Academy of Agricultural Research Management (NAARM), Hyderabad, India. The frame work also permits assessing the implications for technology transfer, and impacts on society and environment. This frame work mainly relies on the identification of nano research and relating them agri-food thematic areas (Fig.1).

In recent years application of nanotechnology in various fields including agriculture has received increased attention. Nanotechnology offers an important role in improving the existing crop management techniques especially in plant disease management by controlled and targeted release of agrochemicals to enhance their efficiency. The nano-based delivery systems are beneficial because of improvement in efficacy due to their higher surface area, higher solubility, induction of systemic activity, higher mobility and lower toxicity (Sasson et al., 2007). The pharmacokinetic parameters of nano particles may be altered according to size, shape and surface functionalization. They can also be used to alter the kinetic profiles of drug release leading to more sustained release of drug there by reducing the frequent application (Sharon et al., 2010). The successful use of metal nanoparticles in medical streams as antimicrobial agents has also led to their applications in controlling phyto pathogens (Nair et al., 2010).

Background

The demand for development of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) strategies is increasing, since many problems have appeared with the use of synthetic pesticides and semiochemicals – informative molecules used in insect-insect or plant-insect interaction – are being considered as an alternative or complementary approach within IPM strategies. (Heuskin et al., 2011). Indeed, such communication molecules like para-pheromones do not present any related adverse effects on beneficial organisms in the ecosystem.

For fruitflies management, several eco-friendly control options  have been developed and recommended across the globe which  include trapping, safe disposal of infested fruits, repulsion with botanical products and physical covering of the developing fruits, besides area-based control through mass trapping and sterile-insect technique. Nevertheless, the use of para-pheromones-based lures in trap systems appears to have greater potential to be among the more widely adopted practices (Verghese, 2009).

Nanotechnology offers unique opportunities for the development of novel materials and applications. It is set to offer a platform to revolutionize agriculture sector from production, protection, processing and storage (Kuzma and Verhage, 2006). Bulk of nanomaterials produced is used in other sectors; only ten per cent is of use in food, beverages and packaging sector. Studies have projected the opportunities that nanotechnologies might bring to developing countries in the fields of water, energy, food and agriculture and health (Salamanca- Buentello et al., 2005) The key contributions due to application of nanotechnology in agriculture are delivery systems that aid in slow release and efficient delivery of agroinputs.

Nanofibres are an exciting new class of material used for several value added applications in the field of such as medical, filtration as barrier in composites, garments, wipes, insulation, and energy storage. Special properties of nanofibres make them suitable for a wide range of applications from medicine to consumer products and industrial to high-tech applications. The US - National Science Foundation (NSF) defines nanofibres as having at least one dimension of 100 nm or less (Hegde, 2005). Amongst the various nanostructures that have recently been developed for use in practical applications, nanofibres produced from synthetic and natural polymershave received increased attention due to their ease of fabrication and the ability to control their compositional, structural and functional properties (Burgeretal.,2006).

Nanotechnology is an emerging of field of science which is being highly exploited in the sphere of medicine where “nano” plays a vital role in delivery of drugs or chemical molecules to the point it is required in précised quantities in right proportions. Nanoscience infuses intelligence to the truck load of chemical constituents that are to be delivered at appropriate locations and cleave from the site after the task is complete. Such process will likely to reduce the cost besides ensuring environmental safety. Nanoscale devices with its unique properties make the agricultural system more smart and effective; such devices are capable of responding to different situations by themselves, thus taking appropriate remedial action with the need of external directions from humans. In short, these devices act as a detectors and if need arises serve as a solution/remedy for the particular issue. These smart delivery systems of chemicals in controlled and targeted manner can be considered synonymous to the proposed nano-drug delivery system in human (Patolsky et al., 2006).

Introduction

Weeds are unwanted plants in agricultural production causing huge losses in crop production system particularly rainfed agriculture. Of the total estimated losses caused in crop production by pests, diseases and weeds in the world, the weeds alone are responsible for one-third of it. Weeds interfere with crop growth and cause an yield loss to the tune of 10% of crop production which amounts to a total loss of about 20 million MT of food grains, valued at over Rs.10,000 crores, at current prices in India. Besides, losses of similar magnitude are experienced in vegetable, fruit and plantation crops. The losses inflicted on biodiversity, environment and health are considerable and have not been quantified scientifically.

Introduction

Fertilizers play an important role in improving soil fertility and productivity of crops regardless of nature of cropping sequence or environmental conditions. It has been unequivocally demonstrated that one third of crop productivity is dictated by fertilizers besides influencing use efficiencies of other agri-inputs. In the past four decades, nutrient use efficiency (NUE) of crops had hardly exceeded 35-50%, 18-20% and 30-35 % for N, P and K, respectively, despite our relentless efforts. The remaining nutrients stay in soil or enter into the aquatic environment causing eutrophication. In addition to the low nutrient efficiencies, Indian agriculture facing a problem of low organic matter, imbalanced fertilization and low fertilizer response that eventually caused crop yield stagnation (Biswas and sharma, 2008).

Introduction

Seed is the key input in agriculture deciding the fate of productivity of any crops. Indeed, seed is referred as a nature’s “nano-gift” for agriculture. Seed is a smart delivery system where we shall make manipulation to achieve the desirable goals. The seed technologists in the country were trying to find a second or third generation technologies to address the issues of seed science. Nanotechnology is one of the cutting edge research areas that has enormous potentials to solve the unresolved field problems. The application of nanotechnology to the agricultural and food industries was first addressed by a United States Department of Agriculture roadmap published in September 2000. Nanotechnology in the agricultural front has been more useful in improving the existing crop management techniques. Most of the applications of nanotechnology spearhead around nano encapsulated agrochemicals, herbicides, nano coated gene delivery and nano fertilizers (Nair et al., 2010).

Introduction

Gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) is equipment that combines the features of gas-liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry to identify different substances within a test sample. Applications of GC-MS include drug detection, environmental analysis include pesticides residue in soil, water and plant crop produce, greenhouse gas quantification, food toxicants, assessment of antibiotic compounds, estimation of volatile organic compounds from biological systems besides identification of unknown compounds.

Introduction

Biological systems are complex and are full of mysteries. Understanding function in relation to structure is crucial in many biological systems. A microscope is used to magnify, resolve and visualize a substance that is impossible to see by naked eyes and plays a vital role in various biological studies. We can visualize macroscopic organisms like animals, plants, and insects by the unaided eye but not bacteria, viruses or individual proteins. Biological structures have sizes variable over such a wide range that is not possible for a single microscopic technique to analyze all of them. Therefore, different types of microscopes with varying magnification and resolving abilities were developed to unveil the structural complexities of biomolecules (Fig. 1). Over the last 100 years, several types of microscopes have been designed and used in various fields. The microscopes work on different principles, and have a broad range of applications.

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)

The transmission electron microscope (TEM) operates on the same basic principles as the light microscope but uses electrons instead of light. What you can see with a light microscope is limited by the wavelength of light. TEMs use electrons as “light source” and their much lower wavelength makes it possible to get a resolution a thousand times better than with a light microscope.

We can see objects to the order of a few angstrom (10^-10 m). For example, we can study small details in the cell or different materials down to near atomic levels. The possibility for high magnifications has made the TEM a valuable tool in both medical, biological and materials research.