eChapters

Introduction

In recent years, the boom in industrialization has revolutionised the countries but has also added much of sufferings. There is tremendous increase in the water and air pollution. Large amounts of effluents from industries containing organic substances of different nature are discharged and enter the aquatic systems resulting in water pollution. Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of dissolved oxygen required by the aerobic microflora to oxidise the organic matter of dirty water. Increased organic matter results in more oxygen requirements by microorganisms to oxidise it and it results in enhancement of BOD of water. As the BOD of water rises, due to decrease in dissolved oxygen (DO), there is increase in death of fish due to suffocation. Determination of biological oxygen demand (BOD) only is insufficient to give a clear picture of organic content of water bodies and the presence of toxic chemicals in the sample so the chemical oxygen

Banana, Musa paradisiaca is one of the most important tropical fruit crops. India tops in the production of banana in the world and almost throughout the year banana fruit is available form one or another part of our country. Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka are the major states in cultivating and producing banana in India. The major insect pests associated with banana crop are described hereunder:

Banana weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus (Germar) (Curculionidae: Coleoptera)

It is most destructive and specific pest of banana and is distributed throughout the country. The eggs are elongate, oval (about 2 mm long), pearly white and present on upper surface and crevices of rhizome. The grubs are creamy white, stout, fleshy swollen in the middle and has red head capsule (Plate 10a). The full grown grub measures 15 mm in length. Pupae are white and found in the pupal chamber made in the periphery of rhizome. The newly emerged weevil is shiny reddish brown but soon becomes uniformly black (12.5mm in length). Longitudinal striations are found in the elytra and it does

Principle

When a solution containing calcium is treated with ammonium oxalate, all the calcium present is precipitated as calcium oxalate. The precipitate when dissolves in sulphuric acid, forming calcium sulphate and liberating free oxalic acid which is quantitatively estimated by titration against standard N/10 KMnO₄ to arrive at the calcium content present in the given solution. Following chemical reactions takes place in the estimation of calcium:

Origin and history : Ber is an ancient fruit crop of India and is relished for its sweet and sour fruits. It is an ideal fruit tree for arid and semi arid regions in tropical and subtropical climate. It is highly suitable for marginal land and hot arid region. It is distributed in tropical and sub tropical country in the world, including China, Pakistan, Australia and France. In India the major growing states are Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh etc. In Uttar Pradesh, Varanasi, Aligarh, Ayodhya, and Agra are the major growing region. Beside mauritiana other important species like Zizyphus rotundifolia, Zizyphus numuleria, Zizyphus rugosa, Zizyphus xylopyrus, Zizyphus micropyla is also commercially grown for rootstock purpose.

1.    Leaf spot or blight
        
2.    Cercospora leaf & fruit spot
        
3.    Alternaria fruit spot
        
4.    Bacterial leaf spot

PROKARYOTES

Prokaryotic organisms are that in which nucleus is primitive type and nuclear material is not enclosed within the nuclear membrane.

Bacteria are placed in the kingdom “Prokaryotae” because of the prokaryotic cellular organization of the members. However, extremely diverse groups of microorganisms differing in morphological, physiological and ecological properties are found within this kingdom. In the beginning, description and information of bacterial systematics or classification was being published in the comprehensive volumes of “Bergey’s Manual of Determinative Bacteriology” (1923, first edition). The 9th edition of Bergey’s Manual, published in 1984 was the last of such comprehensive manual and from 1984 onwards it was renamed as “Bergey’s Manual of Systematic Bacteriology”. It is the most widely accepted and used reference document or book for classification and identification of bacteria. In the 9th edition, the kingdom Prokaryota (Monera) is divided into 4 divisons based on nature of the cell wall.These are : Gracilicultes; Firmicutes; Tenericutes and Mendosicutes .

Important diseases of vegetable crops

1. Damping off: (Phytophthora parasitica, Pythium sp. Rhizoctomia solani):This is a disease of the seedlings at the nursery stage. Due to the attack of this fungus seedlings rot at the ground level and collaps.

Soil temperature plays an important role in plant growth. Solar radiation received on the earth surface raises the temperature of the soil surface from morning to solar noon followed by a decline until the next morning. Soil temperature gradients established on the surface lead to flow of heat downwards causing a rise in temperature of lower layers. These variations in temperature affect germination, emergence and further growth of plants. Several types of thermometers such as mercury or liquid in glass, bimetallic, bourdon gauge, thermocouples and electrical resistance have been used in soil research but the use of thermocouples and thermistors has been found most useful. A brief description of different types of thermometers used in measurement of soil temperature is given below:

Liquids in Glass Thermometer

A liquid-in-glass thermometer (Figure 20.1) consists of a capillary glass tube with a bulb at one end filled with a thermometric liquid (mercury), vacuumed and sealed. By reading the position of the liquid level on a scale the temperature value can be obtained.

1. Botanical Name :Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew.

2. Family : Capparaceae

3. Common Name : Caper berry, Bare Caper, Kair

4. Name in Indian languages

Dela (Delhi and Punjab), Karir, Karil (Uttar Pradesh), Kair (Hindi), Nepati (Marathi), Sirakkali (Tamil), Karimullu (Malayalam), Kariramu (Telugu), Chippuri (Kannada), Khirar(Urdu), Kera (Gujarati).

[Titrimetric/ Walkley and Black (1934) Method]

Introduction

The role of soil organic matter, in relation to soil fertility and physical conditions, are widely recognized. The organic matter is the source of plant nutrients which are released inassimilable forms during microbial degradation. A major proportion of N (95 – 99 % of the total), P (33 – 67 % of the total) and S (75 % of the total) in soils occur in organic combinations, which mineralize to release the nutrients in inorganic forms to be used by plants. Nevertheless, it serves as a reservoir of plant nutrients, in promoting water storage, and in regulating microbial activity.

The organic matter content of a soil varies from 0.344 % in very sandy arid soils to more than 86 % in Peats and Mucks. Soil organic matter contains 5 % N, and 0.5 % each of P and S, thereby, having a N:P:S ratio of 10:1:1. The organic matter content of a soil is estimated by the amount of organic carbon (C) present, as this element represents, on an average, 52 – 58 % of the organic matter, and the C:N ratio is 10 – 15. In the sub-soil, the average organic carbon amount is 36 – 44 % (40 %), and the C:N ratio is < 8. In order to find out the amount of humified organic material, the organic carbon content is multiplied by 1.724, which represents the ratio between the humus and the organic carbon (100/58) and is known as the ‘von Bemmlen factor ’.

The organic matter content of soils is estimated from the organic carbon, determined by using the ‘Titrimetric method / Walkley and Black method. The Titrimetric determination, also known as the ‘wet-digestion method’ involves a rapid titration procedure for the estimation of organic carbon content of soils.

• These are the injuries occurred to male animal at the time of natural mating. These injuries do not occur only to genital organs but also to other organs or muscles. • Most coital injuries occur to male animal with good libido (high testosterone level) but having aggressiveness and poor experience of mating. Such animals tend to quick response in the presence of estrous female. Some of the coital injuries are: 1. Balanitis and Posthitis • Trauma to the penis and prepuce which later on leads to infection and inflammation. • This occurs especially in young inexperienced bulls with great sexual desire • Adhesion may lead to phimosis or paraphimosis condition • IBR-IPV infection from cow genitalia after mating results in pus formation and necrosis of the penis and prepuce. • Prepucial eversion leads to laceration and bleeding.

On the morning of 13 Oct 2023 morning (9:30 am - 12:00 pm), ITAF participants visited snake-skin gourami local farms in Samut scorn province. Snake-skin gourami is one of the best delicacies in Thailand which has large demand in local and international markets. Snake-skin gourami can breed after reaching 100-200 gms ( 2 months). The culture period of snake- skin gourami is 9-10 months. In snake- skin gourami males have a large body and long dorsal fin than females.

Farm 1

Snake-skin gourami culture is done in 30 rai ( 1 rai= 1600 m2) area of the farm. The depth of the pond is 1.5m. A single crop is taken in one year. 50,000 no. of fry are stocked in 30 rai area. Feeding areas are constructed by the net embankment where feed is given to fish harvesting is done after 8-9 months. The cost of production for one crop is 2 million/year in that they produce 30-40 tonnes /30 rai, which is almost 3 million / year.

Sapota, Manilkara zapota commonly called Chickoo is a popular tropical winter fruit cultivated widely in Gujarat, West Bengal, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu. In north, its cultivation is seen across Jammu to Dehradun. Very few insect pests infest Sapota, the details of which are given hereunder:

Sapota leaf webber, Nephopteryx eugraphella Ragonot (Pyralidae: Lepidoptera)

This is a pest of major concern in Chickoo cultivation in India. The eggs are oval and pale yellow in colour which change to reddish brown near hatching. The caterpillar is pinkish in appearance and bears two longitudinal dorsolateral lines. The full fed larva measures 25 mm in length. The newly formed light green pupa changes to reddish brown in the later stage. The adult is a greyish moth having hooked antennae (Plate 10e) bears two vertical lines on the forewing whereas, the hind wings

Spontaneous hypothermia in animals occurs when their body temperature drops below the normal range due to internal or environmental factors, without direct exposure to extreme cold. Unlike hypothermia caused by environmental factors, spontaneous hypothermia often results from metabolic, physiological, or pathological conditions that impair thermoregulation. It is more challenging to predict and manage as it can occur in a wide range of scenarios, including illness, trauma, or systemic dysfunction. Proper nutritional strategies play a critical role in both prevention and recovery.
Spontaneous hypothermia is a drop in core body temperature due to the body’s inability to generate, conserve, or regulate heat, independent of external temperature changes. Mechanism of action
The body maintains its temperature through a balance of heat production (via metabolism and muscular activity) and heat loss (via radiation, convection, conduction, and evaporation). Spontaneous hypothermia occurs when:
1. Heat production fails: Conditions such as malnutrition or metabolic disorders limit the body’s ability to generate heat.
2. Heat loss increases: Trauma or vascular conditions can lead to excessive heat loss.
3. Thermoregulatory failure: Diseases affecting the nervous system or endocrine glands disrupt the mechanisms that regulate body temperature.

Fixation is the first and utmost important step to take good histology of eye ball. The eye is a composite organ made up of layers of different consistencies that tend to separate during fixation and sectioning (Drury and Wallington, 1980).
Fixation (Davidson’s fluid)
Davidson’s fluid is an excellent fixative for fixation of whole eye ball but conventional 10% formalin causes artificial cellular shrinkage and poor cellular and nuclear resolution of the retina. Formaldehyde penetrates tissue well but takes more time because sclera stands as physical barriers that protects the retina and inhibit the penetration of fixative. Davidson’s fixative is acetic acid, alcohol- formalin based fixative in which alcohol denatured the protein by breaking hydrogen bonds and disturbing their tertiary structure and acetic acid increase the penetration. It has been advocated and widely used for the preservation of eye ball, maintaining retinal attachment during fixation and processing and providing better preservation of the retinal nuclear layer and sensory specialization of the rods and cones.

Description and Distribution
The dried leaves and flowering tops of Artemisia dracunculus Linn. constitute what is known as “Tarragon”, or, “Estragon”, so well - known to connoissuers, the world over, for its extraordinary flavor. Sometimes, it is also called French Tarragon. Its aroma is warm, aromatic, and reminiscent of Anise. It is a perennial herb found in Western Tibet (4265-4880 meter above mean sea level) and in Lahaul. It is distributed in Afghanistan, Western Asia and South and Middle Russia. It is cultivated in Southern Europe, (France, Spain), temperate zones in the USA, as well as, throughout the colder New England area. It grows to a height of about 2 feet (Pruthi, 1997).
Area, Production, Exports:
No information is currently available.
Crop Management:
Soil and Climate
Deel and Deel (1929) found that optimum yield of the herb material and essential oil are obtained in soil with a pH of 6.2 (in such a soil, the oil may contain as much as 66.3% of methyl chavicol, its chief chemical constituent).
Propagation
Through root subdivision/segments
Planting Season
For planting, a cluster of Estragon roots is divided into several segments, these segments are planted in the field in the months of February/March.

Introduction
Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as one of the most pressing global health threats, with implications that extend beyond human medicine to animal health, food security, and the environment. In livestock production systems, the misuse and overuse of antibiotics contribute significantly to the development of resistant pathogens. These resistant organisms can spread from animals to humans through direct contact, contaminated food products, and environmental pathways. The containment of AMR in livestock is not solely a technical or regulatory challenge—it is also a social and behavioral issue. Public awareness, education, and behavioural change are key pillars of any effective AMR mitigation strategy. Schools, community networks, and media platforms play vital roles in shaping knowledge, attitudes, and practices related to antibiotic use in livestock.
Causes of AMR in Livestock
Over-prescription and misuse of antibiotics in veterinary care Use of antimicrobials as growth promoters rather than for therapeutic purposes Poor farm bio-security and hygiene leading to frequent infections
Inadequate regulation and over-the-counter sale of antibiotics without veterinary oversight
Public Health Impact
Transmission of resistant pathogens via the food chain Contamination of soil and water with resistant genes through manure
Emergence of zoonotic diseases with limited treatment options

This chapter introduces the economic and commercial systems through which wool moves from producer to processor and consumer. It examines wool marketing channels, auction systems, private sales, sale by description and the role of objective measurement in establishing market value. The chapter discusses the relationship between fibre diameter, quality and price and considers India's wool economy, including coarse carpet wool and fine-wool imports. Traceability, provenance branding and improved preparation are presented as important strategies for increasing producer returns.

Tools of Public Awareness

The public awareness and awakening can be created among people through various means and ways. In this age of computers and communication, science and technology, information and advertisements there are several quick and effective means of spreading news. The electronic media, the press, education institution, religious, adult education, moral education, spiritual education, religious discourse etc. all are essentially complementary to each other. The governments and the policy makers can only work forwards environmental preservation on political basis. The media, if work passively on pro environmental issues, awareness can be effectively generated among people.

Principle

Phosphorus is the chief acid forming mineral constituent of plant and feeds. Phosphorus present in the ash solution (Mineral extract) is precipitated as ammonium phosphomolybedate. The precipitate is washed with dilute potassium nitrate till free from acid and dissolved in a known excess of standard sodium hydroxide solution. The excess alkali is back titrated against standard acid to arrive at the exact quantity of standard solution required.