eChapters

INTRODUCTION

The latest Assessment Report (AR-5) of Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has concluded that warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s, many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The report further pointed about the warming of atmosphere and ocean; shrinking of glaciers, sea level rise and more frequent and intense extreme weather events. The most critical information pertains to the increase of the concentrations of greenhouse gases. The report figures that human influence, primarily the burning of fossil fuels, has been the “extremely likely” dominant cause of global warming over the past several decades. Based on the scientific evidences, it is reported “warming by the end of the 21st century will lead to high to very high risk of severe, widespread, and irreversible impacts globally” (Edenhofer et al. 2015).

This chapter introduces the close relationship between climate change and forest ecosystems and examines how changing temperature, rainfall, drought, extreme weather, fires, pests, and diseases affect forest health and productivity. It discusses the importance of forests in carbon sequestration, biodiversity conservation, climate regulation, and ecosystem services. The chapter also examines climate-change mitigation through sustainable forest management, afforestation, reforestation, and initiatives such as REDD+. Particular attention is given to the Indian scenario, conservation policies, government initiatives, and challenges associated with forest degradation and climate change

1. Introduction

The world’s temperature has already warmed up to almost 1.2ºC since the preindustrial levels and this warming impact is visible in the form of extreme weather events, sea level rise and diminishing Arctic sea ice. Heat waves and drought in Europe and China, forest fires in the U.S., dust storms and extreme rainfall in India (including the Kerala floods 2018) and high precipitation in Japan and other island nations are all examples of the disasters which have occurred within a single year of 2018. With a further 0.5ºC warming, these effects would be even more pronounced than the scientists’ previous predictions. A 1.5ºC warmer world will see higher temperatures, increase in frequency and intensity of precipitation, higher sea levels, and floods, droughts and heat waves (Venkatesh, 2018). The climate change induced economic damage has been increasing in the past few decades and is likely to continue growing because of population growth, urban development and changing land use pattern (IPCC, 2012). Kerala encountered the most disastrous floods in its history since 1924, between June 1^st and August 19^th of 2018. As the torrential rainfall and associated storm thrashed the state, the entire state got buried under water with only few areas remaining above water. The combined precipitation received by the state during this period was 42 per cent in excess of the typical normal. The exceptional spell of rainfall inflicted heavy damage on the life and properties of thousands of people in the state.

Since 2012, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has considered gender and climate change as a stand-alone agenda item under the Conference of the Parties. This is because it has been already understood that climate change has a greater impact on those sections of the population which are more reliant on natural resources for their livelihood. People who have the least capacity to respond to natural hazards are also affected

more. Majority of women, who are considered among the poorest of the poor are at a greater disadvantage because their income is mostly derived from informal natural resources dependent livelihoods. Globally, more than 400 million women engage in farm work in more than 90 countries. Agriculture being a climate sensitive sector, climate change takes a huge toll on this area. Women are usually engaged in subsistence agriculture and labor-intensive works which worsens their susceptibility to climatic change (Lambrou and Piana, 2006). Hence, during extreme weather events, women experience greater impacts and vulnerability than men and become economically insecure following disasters.

People worldwide are getting affected by the changing climate and associated natural disasters. These climate changes affect both genders differently. Changing climate is not often thought of as an issue related to gender, yet it is increasingly evident that women are more affected by its impacts. Women of all ages are more vulnerable due to persistent cultural norms and low socioeconomic status. Women’s domestic roles often make them inconsistent users of nature-based resources such as firewood, water, and forest products. When these resources become scarcer, they experience an increased work burden. This is proved by many researchers that women in developing countries share the primary responsibility of providing basic needs like food (to feed) and water for their families; this is the cause behind their dependency on natural resources.

4.1 Climate Change

Climate change refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. These shifts may be natural, such as through variations in the solar cycle. But since the 1800s, human activities have been the main driver of climate change, primarily due to burning fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas. Burning fossil fuels generates greenhouse gas emissions that act like a blanket wrapped around the Earth, trapping the sun’s heat and raising temperatures. Burning of crop residues also adds to climate changes

Examples of greenhouse gas emissions that are causing climate change include carbon dioxide and methane. These come from using gasoline for driving a car or coal for heating a building. Clearing land and forests can also release carbon dioxide. Landfills for garbage are a major source of methane emissions. Energy, industry, transport, buildings, agriculture and land use are among the main emitters.

Key Facts
    
·    The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines ‘climate change’ as a ‘Change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over the comparable time periods’.
    
·    The main green house gases (GHGs) that have caused the global climate change or global warming are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O).
    
·    CO₂ is the principal anthropogenic GHG that affects the earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other GHGs are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 1. CH₄ and N₂O have a GWP of 21 and 310 respectively.
    
·    CO₂ is responsible for most of the enhanced green house effect of more than 50%, CH₄ for about 10-15% and N₂O for about 8%.
    
·    The global atmospheric concentrations of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O have increased since 1750. While CO₂ increased from a pre-industrial value of 280 ppm to 379 ppm in 2005, CH₄ increased from 715 ppb to 1774 ppb and N₂O increased from 270 ppb to 319 ppb during the same period.

Summary

The main greenhouse gases (GHGs) that have caused the global climate change or global warming are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O). CO₂ is the principal anthropogenic GHG that affects the earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other GHGs are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 1. CH₄ and N₂O have a GWP of 21 and 310, respectively. CO₂ is responsible for most of the enhanced greenhouse effect of more than 50%, CH₄ for about 10-15% and N₂O for about 8%. The global atmospheric concentrations of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O have increased since 1750. While CO₂ increased from a pre-industrial value of 280 ppm to 379 ppm in 2005, CH₄ increased from 715 ppb to 1774 ppb and N₂O increased from 270 ppb to 319 ppb during the same period. Rich countries and large developing countries account for most of global CO₂ emissions (China 23.5%, USA 18.27%, India 5.83%, Russia 5.72%, Japan 4.04% and European Union 13.98%). A new climate agreement called ‘Warsaw International mechanisms (November 2013) on loss and damage’ agreed to help the poor countries to cope with loss and damage from heatwaves, droughts, floods, typhoons, desertification and rising sea levels. The Warsaw agreement also includes a set of decisions to help developing countries to reduce GHG emissions from deforestation and degradation of forests which is backed by pledges of US$280 million financing by the United States, Norway and the United Kingdom. Projections for global average temperature rise is in the range of 1.1-6.4°C; a doubling of CO₂ (from pre-industrial 280 ppm) and average sea level rise is in the range of 0.18-0.59 m (Meehel et al. 2007) and 0.5–2.4 m (Brown et al. 2013). Hot extremes, heat waves and heavy precipitation events will continue to become more frequent. Projected data show that there is an increasing global trend in the rise of average temperature in all countries, regions or sub-zones; a decreasing trend in average precipitation in most sub-tropical areas and an increasing trend of precipitation in most of the tropical and high latitudes.

Key Facts
    
•    The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines ‘climate change’ as a ‘Change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods’.
    
•    The main green house gases (GHG) that have caused the global climate change or global warming are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (NO₂).
    
•    CO₂ is the principal anthropogenic greenhouse gas that affects the Earths radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other GHGs are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 1. CH₄ and N₂O have a GWP of 21 and 310 respectively.
    
•    CO₂ is responsible for most of the enhanced green house effect of more than 50%, CH4 about 10 to 15% and NO2 about 4%.
    
•    The global atmospheric concentrations of carbon-dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide have increased since 1750, CO₂ increased from a pre-industrial value of 280 ppm to 379 ppm in 2005, CH₄ increased from 715 ppb to 1774 ppb and NO₂ increased from 270 ppb to 319 ppb in 2005.

Introduction

Climate resilience is the capacity of a system, community, or person to foresee, prepare for, react to, and recover from the consequences of climate change while simultaneously preserving critical functions and minimising long-term harm. This ability is described as the ability to adapt to climate change. In order to handle the issues that are brought about by a changing climate, which include increasing temperatures, severe weather events, rising sea levels, and altering weather patterns, it is necessary to take a proactive approach.

Introduction

Global warming is a phenomenon of climate change characterized by a general increase in average temperatures of the Earth, which modifies the weather balances and ecosystems for a long time. In fact, the averages temperature of the planet has increased by 0.8° Celsius (33.4°F) compared to the end of the 19th century. Each of the last three decades has been warmer than all previous decades since the beginning of the statistical surveys in 1850. At the pace of current CO₂ emissions, scientists expect an increase of between 1.5° and 5.3°C (34.7° to 41.5°F) in average temperature by 2100 (Solarimpulse foundation, 2018). Most of the several dozens of predictive models indicate that average temperature can increase by 1.7-5.3°C, as a result of doubling CO₂ concentration within next 60-100 years. 2.3°C is a value most often mentioned what means an increase by 0.3°C a decade.

Climate change has emerged as the most pressing global challenge of the 21st century and which is one of the largest and most complex problems, the developed community has ever faced. The impacts of higher temperatures, variable precipitation, and extreme weather events have already begun to impact the economic performance of countries and the lives and livelihoods of millions of poor people. India is among the countries most vulnerable to climate change. It has one of the highest densities of economic activity in the world, and very large numbers of poor people who rely on the natural resource base for their livelihoods, with a high dependence on rainfall. By 2020, pressure on India’s water, air, soil, and forests is expected to become the highest in the world.

During the last few decades, the global agricultural production has risen and technology enhancement is still contributing to yield growth. However, population growth, water crisis, deforestation and climate change threatens the global food security.

Climate and weather strongly influence annual fluctuations in agricultural insect-pest populations. As ectothermic organisms, insects respond rapidly to variations in temperature, humidity, rainfall and wind. Climate change can modify their development, survival, reproduction, adaptation and geographical distribution. It may increase the number of generations, improve overwintering survival, alter host synchronization, encourage invasive species and reduce the effectiveness of natural enemies and existing control methods. Indirect effects also occur through changes in host-plant growth, resistance and nutritional quality. This chapter examines the responses of important agricultural insect pests to changing climatic conditions and discusses their implications for crop productivity and sustainable pest management.

Forests support diverse insect communities that contribute to pollination, decomposition, nutrient cycling and other ecological processes. Certain insects, however, become destructive pests when environmental changes weaken natural regulation and favour population outbreaks. Increasing temperature, altered precipitation, drought and land-use change can affect insect development, reproduction, survival and geographical range. Climate change may also disrupt synchronization between forest trees and associated insects, intensify native-pest outbreaks and facilitate the establishment of invasive species. Such changes can reduce tree growth, increase mortality and transform forest landscapes. This chapter examines climate-related forest-pest dynamics, ecological consequences and mitigation strategies for strengthening forest health and resilience.

Climate change affects horticultural crops through rising temperatures, irregular rainfall, extreme weather, altered carbon dioxide levels and changes in seasonal patterns. These conditions influence plant growth, flowering, fruit development, nutritional quality and geographical suitability. They also alter the development, survival, reproduction and distribution of horticultural insect pests. Warmer conditions may accelerate insect life cycles, increase the number of generations and intensify crop infestations. Changes in rainfall can either suppress pest activity or create favourable conditions for outbreaks. This chapter examines interactions among climate, horticultural crops and insect pests and highlights the need for proactive monitoring and climate-adaptive pest-management strategies to safeguard horticultural production.

Insect pollinators are essential for the reproduction of most flowering plants and contribute substantially to global crop production and food security. Bees, butterflies, moths, flies, beetles and other insects transfer pollen and support fruit and seed formation. Climate change can influence their physiology, development, activity, foraging, migration, distribution and seasonal emergence. It may also create mismatches between flowering periods and pollinator activity, reducing pollination efficiency. Drought, extreme heat, habitat loss and changes in floral resources further threaten pollinator diversity and abundance. This chapter examines the direct and indirect effects of climate change on insect pollinators and discusses conservation and management measures

Abstract

Climate change or elements of variability is a matter of great concern production positive, negative or natural impact on pest dynamics because of the specific nature of interactions of host, the pest and the environment. New pest such as Rice Whorl maggot, Flea beetal in rice/soybean and bark eating beetle in citrus are emerging with the change in climate pattern. Pest outbreaks in epemic form such as Rice hispa and rice ear cutting caterpillar are also noted. Location specific IPM packages with an emphasis on biological control are the need of the hour considering the threat of environmental pollution. The ecosystem diversification along with the study on natural enemies, spiders and coccinellids may be brought under purview.

Climate change is increasing the likelihood that invasive insects will establish, spread and cause economic damage in new geographical regions. Invasive species commonly possess high reproductive capacity, broad host ranges, environmental tolerance, ecological adaptability and competitive advantages. Rising temperatures and changing humidity and rainfall patterns can create favourable habitats beyond their traditional ranges. Extreme weather and global trade may further support their movement and establishment. Once introduced, invasive insects can compete with native species, disrupt ecosystems and cause serious crop losses. This chapter examines the relationship between climate change and invasive insect pests and emphasizes early detection, quarantine, surveillance, forecasting and coordinated management.

Introduction

Water and food security are the key challenges under climate change as both are highly vulnerable to continuously changing climatic patterns. Climate change has resulted in increases in globally averaged mean annual air temperature and variations in regional precipitation and these changes are expected to continue and intensify in the future. The projected changes in climate patterns over India include increase in surface temperature, variations in rainfall, increasing occurrence of extreme weather events like floods and droughts, rise in sea levels and impact on the Himalayan glaciers. Sectors of the Indian economy are most likely to be impacted by such changes in climate are those dependent on natural resources, namely agriculture, water and forestry. The likely impacts such as reduction in food production, water scarcity, loss of forest biomass Climate change is expected to bring more intense and more frequent extreme weather events including droughts and floods in India. The global atmospheric concentration of carbon di-oxide CO₂ for increased from preindustrial value of about 280 ppm to about 410 ppm at the present (2021). The global increase in CO₂ concentration is primarily due to fossil fuel use and land use change. Atmospheric methane was 1803 ppb in 2011, this is 150% greater than before 1750. Atmospheric nitrous oxide (N₂O) was 324 ppb in 2011, this is 150% greater than before 1750 (Table 1). These increase in GHGs have resulted in warming of the climate system by 0.74°C between 1906 and 2005.

The climate system is the highly complex system consisting of five major components; the atmosphere, the hydrosphere, the cryosphere, the land surface and the biosphere, and the interactions among them. The climate system evolves in time under the influence of its own internal dynamics and because of external forcings such as volcanic eruptions, solar variations and human-induced forcings such as the changing composition of the atmosphere and land-use.

The term ‘climate variability’ is often used to denote deviations of climatic statistics over a given period of time (e.g., a month, season or year) from the long-term statistics relating to the corresponding calendar period. In this sense, climate variability is measured by those deviations, which are usually termed anomalies.

‘Climate change’ refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcings, or due to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. The United Nation’s Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) defines ‘climate change’ as ‘a change of climate behaviour which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods’. The UNFCCC thus makes a distinction between ‘climate change’ attributable to human activities altering the atmospheric composition, and ‘climate variability’ attributable to natural causes. Climate change is a long-term shift in weather conditions measured by changes in temperature, precipitation, wind, snow cover, and other indicators.

A key difference between climate variability and change is in persistence of ‘anomalous’ conditions. In other words, events that are used to be rare occur more frequently, or vice versa. Occasionally, an event or sequence of events occurs that has never been recorded before, such as the exceptional tsunami in the Indian Ocean in 2004 or hurricane season in the Atlantic in 2005. Yet even that could be a part of natural climate variability. If such a season does not recur within the next 30 years, by looking back it could be called as an exceptional year, but not a ‘climate change’. Only a persistent series of unusual events taken in the context of regional climate parameters can suggest that a potential change in climate has occurred.

Introduction

Any notable long-term alteration to the anticipated patterns of the average weather in an area (or the entire Earth) over an extended period of time is referred to as climate change. It concerns anomalous fluctuations in the climate and how these fluctuations affect other regions of the planet. Tens, hundreds, or even millions of years may pass before these changes occur. However, as a result of increased anthropogenic activity including industrialization, urbanization, deforestation, agriculture, and altered land use patterns, greenhouse gas emissions grow and accelerate the rate of climate change. Increases in temperature, variations in precipitation, and an increase in atmospheric CO₂ concentrations are all part of climate change scenarios.

Climate change is exerting profound effects on global agriculture, posing significant challenges to food security, agricultural productivity, and rural livelihoods. This article explores the intricate relationship between climate change and agriculture, examining how changes in temperature, precipitation patterns, and extreme weather events impact crop yields, livestock, and farming practices. It delves into the economic, social, and environmental repercussions of these changes, highlighting vulnerable regions and populations. The article also discusses adaptation and mitigation strategies, emphasizing the roles of technology, policy, and sustainable agricultural practices in building resilience. By understanding the multifaceted impact of climate change on agriculture, we can develop comprehensive approaches to ensure food security and sustainable development in an increasingly unpredictable climate.

Introduction

Climate change has been realised during 1840s when indisputable evidence of former ice ages was obtained. The climate has altered sufficiently in many parts of the world even within the last few decades which will affect the possibilities for agriculture and settlement. Reliable weather records have been kept only during the last hundred years or so, but proxy indicators of past conditions from tree rings, pollen in bog and lake sediments, ice core records of physical and chemical parameters, and ocean foraminifera in sediments provide a wealth of paleoclimatic data. The standard interval adopted by the World Meteorological Organization for climatic statistics is thirty years:1901–30, 1931–60, for example. However, for historical records and proxy indicators of climate, longer, arbitrary time intervals may be necessary to calculate average values. Tree rings and ice cores can give seasonal/annual records, while peat bog and ocean sediments may provide records with only 100- to 1,000-year time resolution. Hence, short-term changes and the true rates of change may, or may not, be identifiable.

The present climatic state is usually described in terms of an average value (arithmetic mean, or the median value in a frequency distribution), a measure of variation about the mean (the standard deviation, or interquartile range), the extreme values, and often the shape of the frequency distribution. A change in climate can occur in several different ways, for example, there may be a shift in the mean level, or a gradual trend in the mean values. The variability may be periodic, quasi-periodic or non-periodic, or alternatively it may show a progressive trend . First, it is important to determine whether such changes are real or whether they are an artefact of changes in instrumentation, observational practices, station location, or the surroundings of the instrumental site, or due to errors in the transcribed data. Even when changes are real, it may be difficult to ascribe them to unique causes because of the complexity of the climate system. Natural variability operates over a wide range of time scales, and superimposed on these natural variations in climate are the effects of human activities.

Global warming and climate change are becoming major challenges in the front of global community to deal with. Climate change is no more a myth but it is reality. The IPCC, 5^th assessment report clearly stated that “evidence of climate- change impacts is strongest and most comprehensive for natural systems”. Natural and human systems of almost all continents in the world have been affected by climate change in recent decades (IPCC, 2014). Agriculture is essential for sustainability of human life on earth but change in climate is threatening its sustainability. In recent decades all aspects of food security has been potentially affected by climate change, including food access, utilization, and price stability. It has been projected that in absence of adaptation measure, increases in local temperature by 2°C or more above late-20^th-century levels will negatively impact production of the major crops in tropical and temperate regions.

Agriculture is one of the major economic activities responsible for food security and livelihood for millions of people. Success, production and productivity of agricultural crops are highly dependent on climate, soil and water. Thus climate change will have adverse effect on agricultural crops. High atmospheric temperature, unpredicted erratic rainfall, rapid soil degradation and evolution of new insect and pests due to climate change will offer new challenge to sustain agriculture. Many part of the world and India is already experiencing impact of climate change on agricultural crops (like early maturity, geographical shift and occurrence of new pests) and these impacts are predicted to increase rapidly in future. The increasing concern about adverse impact of climate change on food security has led to extensive research and documentation of impact of climate change on field crops like rice, wheat and maize. While the clear and holistic idea about impact of climate change on horticultural crops like vegetables and fruits are not well documented especially in developing countries like India.

Stored-product insects damage grains, cereals, pulses and other commodities, causing quantitative losses and deterioration in food quality and nutritional value. Climate change influences temperature and humidity within storage environments, directly affecting insect development, reproduction, survival and population growth. Warmer conditions may shorten life cycles, increase the number of generations and expand the distribution of important storage pests. Poor storage structures and inadequate pest management further increase these risks, particularly in developing countries. This chapter examines the influence of changing climatic conditions on stored-product pests and emphasizes improved storage design, monitoring, sanitation and climate-adaptive management practices for protecting stored food and maintaining food security.

Abstract

Climate change is a change in the distribution of weather over periods of time that range. The effect of climate change is now visible every where including animal farm industry. Projected temperature rise around 2-5oC by 2100 due to climate change is likely estrus, start estrus and decline in reproduction efficiency of livestock species Climate change may have a significant effect on livestock and other animals through is impact on diseases Zoonotic diseases which can be transmitted between vertebrate animals and humans are a matter of great concerns. There is an urgent need for adoption of integrated approaches towards mitigation of advance effects of climate change in animal production. There are nutritional strategies to reduce enteric methane production. Surveillance and monitoring with various adaption strategies are to be brought under purvision to reduce adverse impact of climatic variability in livestock 

Abstract

Climate models predict a global average increase of air temperatures in the range of 14^°C by 2100 (IPCC 2014) - a pace exceeding that of past climatic modifications. Change in temperature is expected to influence species occurrence and distribution with up to 37% of all extant species “committed to extinction” due to climate change. These predictions, however, do not include species interactions and evolutionary change which will significantly alter the fate of species. It is therefore important to improve our understanding of host-parasite interactions and subsequent evolution in response to environmental changes in general and temperature changes in particular. Globally livestock production systems are estimated to account for around 18% of emissions. The need of hour is to draw on recent advances in climatology and epidemiology of various parasitic diseases to consider how environmental changes linked with urbanization and climate change can alter the biology of hosts, pathogens and vectors. Climate change is leading to unusual flare-up of diseases, outbreak recurrences, range expansions, or invasion into novel territories and ecosystems, concomitantly with vector or host range shifts. Higher temperatures increase the invertebrate metabolic rate, egg production amount, and feeding frequency, reducing the duration of the development periods and impacting on the number of generations per year and population abundance effecting livestock and human health and socio-economic transformation

Introduction
 
Climate change is a result from emission of greenhouse gases (e.g. CO₂, CH₄, N₂O, etc.) that will cause atmospheric warming (IPCC, 2007). Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forcing such as modulations of the solar cycles, volcanic eruptions, and persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. Human induced changes in atmosphere composition are a major concern. Burning of fossil fuels, like oil, coal, and natural gas is adding CO₂ to the atmosphere.

Mites are economically important pests of agricultural and horticultural crops whose development and population dynamics are strongly influenced by environmental conditions. Rising temperatures, drought, reduced humidity and altered rainfall can accelerate mite reproduction, shorten generation time and increase infestation severity. Climate change may expand the geographical range of damaging species, alter host suitability and disturb interactions with predatory mites and other natural enemies. Increased pesticide use following outbreaks may further disrupt biological control and encourage resistance. This chapter examines climate-related changes in mite biology, distribution and pest status and presents adaptive management strategies involving surveillance, resistant cultivars, biological control and integrated pest-management practices.

6.1 Introduction

The sensitivities of plants and of crop yield to a changing climate, is a major challenge for the agricultural research community to relate these findings to the broader societal concern with food security. This chapter reviews the direct effects of climate on both crop growth and yield and on plant pests and pathogens and the interactions that may occur between crops, pests, and pathogens under changed climate. The better understanding of the roles of pests and pathogens in crop production systems that might   make to enhanced food security is discussed. Evidence for the measured climate change on crops and their associated pests and pathogens is starting to be documented. Globally atmospheric CO₂ has increased, and in northern latitudes mean temperature at many locations has increased by about 1.0–1.4 ^°C with accompanying changes in pest and pathogen incidence and to farming practices. Many pests and pathogens exhibit considerable capacity for generating, recombining, and selecting fit combinations of variants in key pathogenicity, fitness, and aggressiveness traits that there is little doubt that any new opportunities resulting from climate change will be exploited by them.

Plant-parasitic nematodes are important soil-borne pests that reduce crop productivity by feeding on roots and interfering with water and nutrient absorption. Temperature, soil moisture, rainfall, carbon dioxide and host-plant conditions influence their development, reproduction, survival and geographical distribution. Climate change may allow certain nematode species to expand into new regions, complete additional generations and cause greater crop damage. Drought, flooding and altered soil conditions may also modify interactions among nematodes, plants, microorganisms and natural enemies. This chapter examines the likely effects of climate change on important plant-parasitic nematodes and discusses monitoring, forecasting and adaptive management approaches for climate-resilient crop protection.

Introduction

In India, almost 85 % of our population resides in rural areas and the same proportion is dependent on agriculture for sustenance and animal husbandry for additional income. Distribution of livestock is more equitable compared to that of land and about 85 percent of livestock are owned by the landless, marginal and small landholding families. This sector provides employment for the farmers through livestock farming as well as in processing, value addition and marketing of livestock products.

Rapid population, economic growth, increased demand for livestock products such as meat and dairy products, in?uences the present livestock production systemtowards intensive production. There is increased con?ict over scarce resources such as land, water, food grains etc. Losing livestock assets for rural communities might lead to abject poverty with serious effect ontheir livelihoods. The climate change impact will worsen the vulnerability of livestock systems and those farmers depending on livestock, particularly the poor.

Predatory arthropods provide valuable ecosystem services by suppressing agricultural pests and maintaining ecological balance. Important predators include ladybird beetles, lacewings, predatory bugs, spiders, mites and other groups that consume harmful insects at different developmental stages. Their small body size and ectothermic nature make them sensitive to changing temperature and moisture regimes. Global warming can affect their metabolism, development, body size, fecundity, longevity, dispersal and geographical distribution. Climate change may also disrupt temporal and spatial relationships between predators and their prey. This chapter examines the effects of climatic changes on predatory arthropods and their continuing role in natural and applied biological control.

Coffee is grown at higher elevation across the Western Ghats between 750 and 1200 m amsl. It requires a certain degree of shade for its better performance. The annual rainfall over the coffee growing tracts varies between 1400 and 2600mm, having uni/bi-model rainfall with prolonged dryspell from November to May. It is more so over North of the Western Ghats. The mean annual maximum temperature varies between 24 and 30⁰C while the minimum between 15 and 18⁰C. The difference between maximum and minimum temperatures (temperature range) varies between 5 and 16⁰C across the coffee tract. The ‘Monsooned Malabar Coffee’ is a specialty coffee produced from the erstwhile ‘Malabar Region’. It undergoes certain changes in physical and biochemical characters when the coffee beans are processed during the summer monsoon (June to September). It is processed at Mangalore, located in Coastal Karnataka. The processing location experiences heavy rainfall of more than 1000 mm in July, followed by 950 mm in June and 600 mm in August. Out of 3264 mm of annual rainfall, 2852 mm is received during the monsoon period. It accounts more than 80 per cent of annual rainfall. The maximum temperature during the monsooning varies between 28 and 30°C while night temperature revolves between 22 and 24°C. Being located in the tropics along the West Coast, the crop processing environment in terms of surface air temperature is relatively uniform and moderate with a characteristic feature of heavy clouds and continuous rainfall during the monsoon period.

Importance of rice in Konkan area is characterized by heavy rains of 100 mm per week or so over an extended period and contributes 42.9 % of total rice production in the Maharashtra State. Rice is the only suitable crop that can be grown under puddled soil conditions, i.e. with standing water over bunded fields. Tansplanting method of rice is commonly followed by most of the farmers in this region. Puddled rice is said to be of assistance in mitigating the effects of floods. The problem of weeds is minimal in puddled rice culture. Thus, rice serves as a livelihood crop for millions of small, and marginal farmers in Konkan who can afford only low-cost technologies. Even though the crop is robust and versatile, it has faced drawbacks in terms of low yield and reduction in acreage. In Konkan region of Maharshtra, there are two agro climatic zones viz., North Konkan coastal zone comprising three districts viz., Thane, Raigad and Greater Mumbai and South Konkan Coastal Zone comprising two districts viz., Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg. Ratnagiri district receives the highest rainfall of > 3500 mm while Thane district receives the lowest rainfall (2000-2500 mm) in this region. Sindhudurg and Raigad districts receives 3000-3500 and 2500-3000 mm rainfall, respectively. It is generally observed that South Konkan districts record high rice yields in spite of low area while reverse in North Konkan districts. The district wise area and production of rice in Konkan region as the mean for the period of 1997-98 to 2014-15 revealed that, Thane occupies largest average area of 133822 ha under rice, while Raigad has the highest production of rice (308555 tonnes) and Sindhudurga district has the high productivity of 2.75 t ha^-1. The trends in area, production and productivity of rice for the period 1997-98 to 2014-15 shows significant decreasing trend in paddy area while in case of production and productivity the trend is increasing. Paddy area decreased from 425000 ha in 1997-98 to only 311300 ha in 2014-15, while productivity increased from 2.44 tonnes ha^-1 in 1997-98 to 2.88 tonnes ha^-1 in 2014-15. In this context, it is necessary to understand the agro meteorological constraints for improving the yield and simultaneously reduce the fall in cultivated area.

Rice is one of the major staple food of the world’s population. About 114 countries grow rice and more than 50 have an annual production of 100,000 tonnes or more. Asian farmers produce about 90 per cent of the total, with two countries, China and India, growing more than half of the total crop. For most rice producing countries where annual production exceeds one million tonne, rice is the staple food. In Bangaldesh, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Myanmer, Thailand and Vietnam, rice provides 50–80 per cent of the total calories consumed.

Soil supports diverse arthropod communities, including insects, mites, springtails, spiders, millipedes and centipedes. These organisms contribute to decomposition, nutrient cycling, soil formation, microbial regulation and food-web stability. Their activities improve soil fertility, structure and overall ecosystem functioning. However, soil arthropods are highly responsive to temperature, moisture, vegetation and other environmental factors. Global warming, altered rainfall, drought and changes in soil properties can modify their diversity, abundance, distribution and ecological interactions. Despite their importance, climate-change effects on soil arthropods remain comparatively understudied. This chapter examines their ecological roles, relationships with soil properties and responses to changing climatic conditions in agricultural ecosystems.

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolour (L.) Moench) is one of the most nutritional and fifth most important cereal crop after maize, wheat, rice and barley as well as a major dietary staple food crop of more than 500 million people in various countries (Ashok Kumar et al., 2011). It is considered as the “King of Millets” that extensively grown in Semi-Arid Tropics (SAT). As a coarse grain, it is used not only for human food, but also for fodder and feed for animals, and building material etc. Its grain is used to make bread, biscuits, sugar, starch, syrups, and alcohol, beer and malt products. It is a good source of energy, protein, vitamin, minerals, and trace elements. Sorghum cultivation in India probably started in the first millennium BC (Dogget, 1988). In India, sorghum is commonly known as jowar and accounts 14% of total world’s sorghum cultivated area and 8% production. India stands first in area of cultivation and second major producer until the end of 20^th century. Currently (2012-16). India stands second in cultivated area after Sudan and fourth in production after USA, Nigeria and Mexico. It is the fifth major cereal crop in India after rice, wheat, maize, and pearl millet (bajra), and accounts 6% of total cereal cultivated area and 3% of total cereal production (DES, 2016). Sorghum is cultivated in India majorly during kharif (rainy) season as a rainfed crop and in rabi (post-rainy) season under residual soil moisture/limited-irrigated conditions. Sorghum is gaining importance along the coastal belt of Andhra Pradesh as rice fallows during rabi season in place of maize due to water scarcity in recent years. Maize requires 4 to 6 irrigations while 2 to 3 irrigations in case of sorghum during the crop season for potential yields under field conditions. In this chapter,a glimpse of sorghum growing regions in India, interrelationship between climatic changes and yield of sorghum and adaptation strategies to sustain sorghum productivity in India during future climatic periods are discussed in detail.

Introduction

The problem of dealing with climate change, a critical global issue, has come to define our era. Human activities are rapidly altering Earth’s climate, with far- reaching repercussions for many industries, including agriculture. The necessity for environmentally responsible food production is pressing as the global population rises. One possible way to lessen the effects of global warming on food production is to adopt the sustainable agriculture practice of striking a balance between environmental protection, social justice, and economic viability. The impacts of climate change on farming may be seen all across the world right now. Global food security is threatened by climate change, which is causing higher temperatures, changing precipitation patterns, and increasing extreme weather events. Greenhouse gas emissions, deforestation, and unsustainable farming practices all have a hand in accelerating global warming. Therefore, it is crucial to tackle the double problem of lowering agriculture’s environmental imprint while also adapting it to climate change. Sustainable agriculture works toward a compromise by encouraging robust and flexible agricultural practices. It aims to ensure the sustainability of food production in the future while reducing environmental effects by incorporating climate change adaptation and mitigation techniques into agricultural practices. Agricultural systems can be made more resistant to climate change by the use of sustainable farming practices such as agroforestry, crop diversification, soil conservation, and water management. Sustainable farming practices help communities adapt to climate change, boost local economies, and secure food supplies for future generations.

2.1 Introduction

Weather has always been a popular topic but in the recent past it has received wide attention and debate as the public concern has increased about unforeseen changes in our climate. Over the 20^th century the average temperature of the earth has increased by 0.4 -0.8^oC. This increase is expected to continue and by 2100 the average global temperature is likely to be 1.4 - 5.8 ^oC warmer. One of the anticipated effects of climate change is the possible increase in both frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, such as heat waves, cold waves, hurricanes, floods and drought spells. The warming of the earth may fuel interactions between the ocean and atmosphere that will amplify the frequency and intensity extreme weather events. The possible changes in the frequency, distribution and intensity of extreme climate events have a significant influence at local, regional and global scales due to their multi-sectoral impacts on the overall economy.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its fifth assessment report (AR5) stated that warming of the climate system is unequivocal and is more pronounced since the 1950s. The atmosphere and oceans warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, and rise in sea level is noticed. Each of the last three decades has been successively warmer at the earth’s surface than any preceding decade since 1850 and the globally averaged combined land and ocean surface temperature data show a warming of 0.85°C over the period 1880 to 2012. The recent years viz., 2015, 2016 and 2017 were the hottest years on record. The warming trend in India since 1961 has indicated an increase of 0.9°C, which is likely to impact many crops, negatively impacting food production. There are already evidences of negative impacts on yields of wheat and paddy in northern India due to increased temperature, water stress, and reduction in number of rainy days. Coastal agriculture has the onus of providing livelihood to nearly 20 % of Indian population. The water logging and coastal salinity are the major factors affecting the agricultural output from the regions. During the past decade, frequency of the extreme events such as droughts, cyclone and hailstorms increased, with 2002, 2004, 2009, 2012, and 2014 being severe droughts. Frequent cyclones and severe hailstorms in various central and southern Indian states and drought prone areas have become common. Eastern part of the country is affected by sea water intrusion. Reduced food grain productivity, loss to vegetable and fruit crops, fodder scarcity, shortage of drinking water to animals during summer, forced migration of animals, severe loss to poultry and fishery sectors were registered due to the climatic stresses, threatening the livelihoods of rural poor particularly in the coastal regions of the country.

Climate change projections for Indian subcontinent up to 2100 indicate an increase in temperature by 2-4⁰C, with different regions expected to experience differential changes in the amount of rainfall. India will experience an increase in mean and extreme precipitation during monsoon. This will increase both floods and drought. Freshwater resources will be affected due to combination of climate change and unsustainable practices. It is projected that Indian agriculture will lose over US $7 billion by 2030. There will be large reductions in wheat yield in the Indo-Gangetic plain; and substantial increase in heat stress for rice, affecting yield in the country. Coastal flooding will affect people and agriculture and also affect tourism in India. Some of the fish and other marine animals will face extinction by 2050, affecting fishing community. Glaciers in Himalaya continue to shrink affecting run-off and water resources downstream. Impacts of global climate change will be felt among the populations, predominantly on subsistence and smallholder farmers. Since agriculture currently contributes about 17 % of India’s gross domestic product (GDP), a negative impact on production implies cost of climate change to roughly range from 0.7% to 1.35% of GDP per year especially with rural India. The Indian agriculture production system faces the daunting task of feeding 17.5% of the global population with only 2.4% of land and 4% of water resources at its disposal. India is more vulnerable to climate change in view of the different vulnerabilities such as heat stress, cold waves and seasonal flooding in northern India; seasonal flooding, sea water intrusion, soil salinity and severe drought in eastern India; drought, salinity, severe cyclones and scarcity monsoon in Southern India.

Climate change significantly impacts agriculture, altering growing conditions, crop yields, and the livelihoods of farmers. Rising temperatures and shifting precipitation patterns can lead to more frequent and intense droughts, floods, and storms, which disrupt planting and harvesting schedules and reduce crop productivity. Changes in temperature and precipitation can also exacerbate pest and disease pressures, making it harder for farmers to protect their crops. Additionally, the increased frequency of extreme weather events can damage infrastructure and soil health, further challenging agricultural systems. These effects pose serious threats to food security, necessitating the development of climate-resilient farming practices and crop varieties, as well as policies that support sustainable agricultural development and climate adaptation.

The climate change is not “gender neutral”. Women and girls experience the greatest impacts of climate change, which amplifies existing gender inequalities and poses unique threats to their livelihoods, health, and safety.

Climate change effect on women

1. Reduced Agricultural Productivity: Climate change leads to crop failures, reduced yields, and changed growing seasons, affecting women’s income and food security.

2. Increased Water Scarcity: Changes in precipitation patterns and increased evaporation lead to water scarcity, forcing women to travel farther for water, reducing their time for other activities.

3. Soil Erosion and Degradation: Flooding and erosion caused by climate change degrade soil quality, reducing fertility and affecting crop growth, further threatening women’s livelihoods.

Agricultural production system has gone a long way in supporting the world’s food requirement. The projected estimates revealed that to meet the global population of about 11.3 billion in 2050, the global demand for cereal will increase by 60% (Rosegrant and Cline, 2003, Bengtsson et al., 2006). Agriculture is considered as the chief agent of environmental transformation. The unrestrained attitude of Homo sapiens towards the use of natural resource catalyzing the causes leading to global warming, has increased the challenges manifold to provide food security in a sustainable manner. Increased concentration of CO2 and other green house gases have resulted in an increase of 0.760 C in surface temperature globally since nineteenth century and the mean global surface temperature is predicted to increase by an additional 1.30C to 1.80C by 2050( IPCC, 2007). Sinha and Swaminathan (1991) reported that an increase of 20C in temperature could decrease the rice yield by about 0.75 t/ha in the high yield areas and a 0.5oC increase in winter temperature would reduce wheat yield 0.45 t/ha.

GHG emissions as an Agriculture
Agriculture is significant source of GHG emission. Farming records for roughly 10-12 % of absolute anthropogenic GHG emissions, contributing 40 % of all out methane (CH4) and 60 % of nitrous oxide (N2O); agriculture is greatest wellspring of anthropogenic non-CO2 discharges. CH4 begins predominantly from metabolic action of methane-creating microscopic organisms in rice paddy soils and the gastrointestinal maturation of ruminants. N2O discharges get predominantly from farmland soil nitrification and de-nitrification under nitrogen manure application. Rural waste treatment, for example, fertilizing the soil and biogas creation, likewise straightforwardly brings about CH4 and N2O discharges. The change of land use from backwoods to cropland increments soil CO2 discharges. Notwithstanding immediate GHG discharges, farming exercises like apparatus tasks, and compost and feed inputs additionally by implication increment the carbon impression of farming by means of different pathways like petroleum product utilization.
Agriculture a Key Carbon Sinks
Farming moreover addresses a key carbon sink, in spite of the way that it is a huge wellspring of GHG. Horticultural perennials, for instance, field, backwoods, natural item estates and tea houses can get CO2 from the Environment through photosynthesis. It is evaluated that around 13 % of the CO2 emanated by oil based commodity use is consumed by natural vegetation reliably. Vegetation stores are changed into soil natural carbon (SOC) by the activities of microorganisms. In particular, microbial Nero mass can associate with soil minerals to shape a muddled that is a protected carbon pool and the soil carbon can subsequently be taken care of for a surprisingly long time; this carbon tirelessness instrument is known as a soil microbial-mineral carbon siphon. The soil carbon pool (2400 Gt) truly relies upon twice that set aside in the terrestrial vegetation and on different occasions that set aside in the air. The “4 for every 1000 soil carbon overhaul plan,” first proposed by the French service of agribusiness at the Collected Nations Environmental Change Gettogether held in 2015, relies upon the epic carbon-sink breaking point of soils.

Globally, the climate change is clearly evident in the form of changing weather pattern, and this has direct and indirect bearing on livestock production. Scientific evidence from multiple resources indicates that, without a doubt, climate is changing. It is also possible to suggest with increased confidence that climate is changing because of increased human activities which have serious repercussions on social and economic development. Greenhouse gases absorb heat from the sun in the atmosphere and reduce the amount of heat escaping into space. This extra heat has been found to be the primary cause of observed changes in the climate system over the 20th century. Livestock make a necessary and important contribution to global calorie, protein supplies and important micro nutrients such as B12, iron, calcium. They produce 17% of calories consumed globally and 33% of protein. Livestock can increase the world’s edible protein balance by transforming inedible protein found in forage into forms that people can digest. Climate change poses serious threats to livestock production. Various climate model projections suggest that by the year 2100, mean global temperature may be 1.1–6.4 °C

Introduction

Climate change has been, and continues to be one of the important causes of low productivity from animal agriculture in tropical countries like India through crop failures, fodder scarcity and increased incidence of endemic animal diseases. It impacts animal agriculture and cause immediate danger for human societies as livelihoods and food production are being adversely affected. Farm ruminant animals contribute to food supply by converting low-value materials, inedible or unpalatable for human, into milk, meat, and eggs and directly contribute to nutritional security. Besides contributing over one-fourth to the agricultural GDP, it provides employment to 18 million people in principal or subsidiary status in India. Nearly two-thirds of farm households are associated with farm animal rearing and 80% of them are small landholders (≤2 ha). As a result of various socio-economic and market driven factors, during the last one decade, large scale transformation took place in both extensive and intensive animal agriculture with regards to type and breed of the animal. A lot of high yielding, low disease resistant and more vulnerable crossbreed animal population have been increased in present animal production systems inorder to meet the market demands. Climate changes could impact severely the economic viability and production of these intensive animal production systems through increased incidence of drought/?oods/cyclones/hailstorms etc. Drought and high ambient temperatures in particular, affects production of milk, meat and egg, reproduction, health of animals and condition of pastures. Changes in pasture and crop biomass availability and quality affect animal production through changes in daily or seasonal feed supplies. Heavy rains and associated ?oods would washout the fodder resources and animals. Recent incidences of severe hail storms are causing brutal injuries to the grazing animals. To mitigate the adverse affects of extreme weather events and cope with changing climate, much precised resilient technologies suitable to local conditions and resources are needed. Hence, one should be critical in recommending smart animal-agriculture technologies in view of much diversified and heterogeneous group of farmers and the resources accessible to them. This will help in sustainable productivity from animal-agriculture and profitability to the farmers even in the era of climate change.

Abstract

Increased human activities such as agriculture, mining, and manufacturing have resulted in rapid increase of green house gases (GHGs) in the atmosphere. Atmospheric accumulation of the GHGs results into global warming and climate variability or change. Climate change due to enhanced greenhouse effect arising as a result of human activity is considered a major global environmental threat to mankind today. Perhaps nowhere in the globe are people more vulnerable to climate change than in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Most livelihoods in SSA are climate-sensitive due to over dependency on land and other natural resources and are thus perched on the brink of disaster due to climate change.

Climate change is now undoubtedly affecting millions of people across Africa and it actually threatens to wipe-out the past and current global efforts made to tackle poverty unless urgent and robust decisions and actions are taken. This is also a wake-up call for the world to adopt alternative development models that would ensure massive cuts in GHG emissions to avoid a potentially irreversible change. Scientists have warned that unless the global community, especially the developed countries, take genuine steps now to reduce their emissions; many more millions of people in the developing world will be negatively impacted by climate change.

The Jammu and Kashmir State lies in the extreme North of the Himalayas and constitutes about 67.5 per cent of the North West Himalayan region. The State is predominantly a mountainous state with all the major Himalayan ranges and trans-Himalayas adequately represented. The State of Jammu and Kashmir located in the north Western corner of India, extends between 32^o-17' and of 37^o-50' North parallels of latitude and 73^o-26' and 80^o-30' East of meridians of longitudes and 81^o East of Greenwich. The State on the basis of physiography may be divided into three main regions (i) outer Himalayas which comprise of Jammu province (ii) lesser Himalayas which comprises of Kashmir Valley and (iii) inner Himalayas which comprise of Ladakh province. Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh regions have distinct agro climatic characteristics. Jammu region has two different climatic zones depending primarily on altitude. Lower hills & plains bear subtropical climate with hot dry summer lasting from April to July. The summer monsoon commences around first fortnight of July and fading away in early September. This is followed by dry spell from September to November. Winter is mild and temperature seldom touches freezing point. In the high reaches of Chenab valley, the climate is moist temperate, winter is severe and varied quantity of snow is received. The Kashmir valley with Pir Panjal Mountains on its South and Karakoram on its North receives precipitation in the form of snow due to western disturbances. The winter is severely cold and temperature often goes below 0°C. Summers are warm and dry and autumn is again cool and sometimes wet. Ladakh is situated in eastern mountain range of Kashmir. This is one of the highest ranges in the world. It is a cold desert receiving very little precipitation. The temperature remains below the freezing point during winter due to its high altitude.

Key facts

    
•    Agriculture is the major land use across the globe. Agriculture production (plant growth) is highly dependent on climate since crop growth is influenced by solar radiation, temperature and precipitation. Agriculture is also sensitive to climate variability and weather extremes (droughts, floods, severe storms).
    
•    The yields of C₃ crops (rice, wheat, and soybean) is expected to increase (10-20%) with predicted doubling of CO₂ concentrations compared to C₄ crops (maize, sorghum, millet, sugarcane) since C₃ plants respond readily/positively to increased CO₂ levels. Therefore, CO₂ enrichment may benefit temperate and humid tropical agriculture compared to semi-arid tropics.
    
•    The predicted rise of temperature could impact crop and horticulture yield if it exceeds optimal temperature range. For example, low latitudes crops are being grown near the limits of temperature tolerance and global warming may put them to higher stress.
    
•    On a world wide basis, global warming would benefit the mid to high latitude zones for agriculture (for a small change of temperature of 1-3^ºC), whereas low latitudes, semi-arid and tropical areas will have much reduced crop and livestock yields. However, adaptation measures may reduce such impacts.

Key facts

Agriculture
    
·    Agriculture production (plant growth) is highly dependent on climate since crop growth is influenced by solar radiation, temperature and precipitation and sensitive to climate variability and weather extremes (droughts, floods, severe storms).
    
·    Climate change is projected to have an effect on local agriculture and the net result could be harmful (e.g. frequent droughts, salinization of agriculture land due to sea level rise) or beneficial, (e.g. enhance CO₂ and higher yield, longer growing season, increased precipitation) or mixed.
    
·    Climate change or a doubling of GHGs (2 x CO₂) is projected to cause both gains and losses of agriculture land.
    
·    Each crop has a specific temperature range at which vegetative and reproductive growth will proceed at the optimal rate and exposures to extreme temperatures during these phases can impact growth and yield. Higher temperatures during the reproductive stage of development can affect pollen viability, fertilization and grain or fruit formation. 
    
·    Warming generally allow plants to grow faster that are below their optimum temperature, however for cereal crops faster growth means there is less time for the grain itself to grow and mature, reducing yields. 
    
·    Night-time temperatures are rising faster than daytime temperatures and are expected to continue rise in the future. According to International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Philippines, the rise of night time temperature decreases rice yield by 10% for each 1°C increase in growing-season night time temperature in the dry season.

Key Facts
        
Agricultural food
    
·    There are multiple pathways through which climate-related factors may impact food contamination and food safety, food quality, foodborne diseases including changes in temperature and precipitation patterns, increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events, ocean warming and acidification and changes in the transport pathways of complex contaminants.
    
·    All or most foodborne pathogens and their associated diseases are linked to changing environmental conditions, the notable of which are campylobacteriosis, salmonellosis and vibriosis.
    
·    An estimated 30% of reported cases of salmonellosis across much of continental Europe have been attributed to warm temperatures, especially when they exceed a threshold of 6°C above average. Likewise both in Australia and Canada a positive correlation was found between increasing temperature and incidence of salmonellosis.
    
·    Zoonosis such as Rift Valley Fever (RVF), West Nile Fever, tick-borne diseases and non-zoonotic animal diseases such as Blue tongue, African horse sickness, African swine fever are examples of animal diseases whose distribution is expected to be strongly influenced by climate change and variability.
    
·    Mycotoxin is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by filamentous fungi, commonly known as moulds and may contaminate agricultural commodities (food) by growing on them both before and after harvest, whenever the humidity and temperature are permissive. The most prominent mycotoxins are aflatoxins, deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, ochratoxin-A, fumonisin, and patulin.
    
·    The humans ingestion of mycotoxins occur through consumption of the mycotoxin contaminated plant-based foods, such as grains, maize, barley, rice, coffee, nuts and their residues, and metabolites in animal-derived foods, for example aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) in milk and meat products. In addition, mycotoxins may occur in beer and wine.