eChapters

The economic loss in livestock arising due to mycotoxicosis is enormous apart from being a health risk. Indian economy is heavily affected by mycotoxins. It was estimated that 10 million dollars were lost in India’s export within a decade due to groundnut contamination with mycotoxins (Vasanthi and Bhat, 1998). Many developing countries have realized that reducing mycotoxin contamination in foods will not only improve the health and production in animal, but also increase the raw material exports (international trade) to other countries. The following strategies are to be adhered strictly to reduce the mycotoxins contamination of crops in the field.

1. Early harvesting

Early harvesting reduces the fungal infection of crop in the field. Early harvesting and threshing of groundnuts results in lower aflatoxin levels and higher gross returns of 27% than in delayed harvesting (Rachaputi et al., 2002).

Etiology

The condition is usually caused by implantation of low virulent saprophytic bacteria due to traumatic injury. These organisms stimulate cell mediated immune response by persistence of antigen in the tissue.

10.1 CEREALS AND CEREAL PRODUCTS

CONTAMINATION: The sources of contamination in cereals and cereal products are soil, insects, air, etc. Most of the microorganisms are removed with the outer portions of the grain during milling. The bleaching agents used during milling also reduce numbers of microorganisms. The bacteria in wheat flour include Bacillus, Micrococcus, Flavobacterium. Mold spores are chiefly of Aspergillus spp and Penicillium spp and in addition Alternaria, Cladosporium and other genera are found. The numbers of microbes in cereals and cereal products vary widely from few hundred per gram to million. Corn meal contains several hundred to several thousand bacteria and mold per gram.

Ergonomics (also known as Human Engineering, Human Factors or Human Ergology) is the scientific study of relationship between a person and his/her working environment. The term environment includes the tools, materials and method of work, ambient conditions and physical environment in which the work is carried out, and also the organizational factors. Ergonomics application can help in increasing the efficiency and productivity, reducing drudgery and occupational health problems, and enhancing safety of workers in various activities.

In meteorology, we often use some of the physical parameters to explain the physical processes taking place in the atmosphere. These parameters must have already appeared in the earlier chapters. However, these are given in this chapter to enable the readers to get acquainted once again.

16.1 Momentum

Momentum is defined as the product of mass and its velocity. In S.I. system units mass is expressed in kilograms and velocity in meters per second.

Momentum = Mass x Velocity

Units for momentum (S.I. system) = kg. m/sec

In C.G.S. System, mass is expressed in grams and velocity in cm/sec.

Units for momentum (C.G.S System) = gm.cm/sec

DNA and RNA are the carriers of genetic information in all the living organisms. The study and analysis of the genetic code can provide information that can be used in clinical diagnostics, drug discovery, genetic engineering and forensic sciences. Hence there is need to understand the techniques in isolation of DNA and RNA followed by their amplification and sequencing.

Diagnosis of plant diseases require some knowledge of light microscopy to examine infected tissues for the presence of plant pathogens. Most of the pathogens and the diseases caused by them can be identified quickly by using different methods such as section or cutting of infected tissue, squashes of scrapping of plant surface. Homecare, the detail study enquires ultrastructural examination of the pathogen.. Electron microscope rely on a beam of electrons produced from a hot filament (e.g. tungsten) and its power of resolution is much greater than light microscope. Electron microscope are of two type

Migration is an integral part of civilization. Everyone is born in a location, wherein, for education he/she needs to migrate elsewhere and after completion of education, there would be further migration for jobs. During Covid-19 it was harshly depicted that more than 50 million migratory workers were forced to quit their job place and when the Covid-19 pandemic apocalypse was over they started re-migrating. Both Push and Pull factors are responsible for Migration. Pull factors incubates choices for migration ad push factors creates a compulsion for migration.Young people from all backgrounds are looking into different ways for rural and urban youth to get about in the town of Darjeeling. Urban adolescents are faced with downward mobility and endure disappointment in their hopes for professional professions and ‘modern’ lives, whereas rural kids enjoy certain types of upward mobility when they relocate into the metropolis (Brown, T. 2015). It is recognized that the main driving force behind migration is the pursuit of better job prospects, and the extent and direction of migration are predominantly influenced by employment opportunities (Khan, 1983). Furthermore, rural areas in Darjeeling have experienced a noticeable trend of male-selective migration in search of better opportunities in the past few decades. This migration primarily occurs towards urban environments within the district and major cities such as Delhi, Kolkata, Chennai, and Mumbai, to name a few important destinations. Several factors have contributed significantly to this phenomenon, including population pressure, degradation of common property reSources like forests, long neglect of the region, economic and social backwardness, low agricultural productivity, and lack of opportunities. While this migration brings in much-needed income, it also diminishes the available workforce in the home villages.

Rabies is an ancient, dreadful disease known to mankind from the vedic ages. It is a zoonotic disease caused by Rabies virus, genus Lyssavirus family Rhabdoviridae, affecting all mammals including man. The WHO categorizes rabies as a neglected zoonotic disease that causes around 59,000 human deaths globally annually after onset of symptoms. It is a vaccine preventable disease reported from over 150 countries and territories barring the island nations like Australia, Brunei, Japan, Maldives, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea, Singapore, Timor Leste and the Pacific Island Countries. The Indian islands of Andaman Nicobar and Lakshadweep are rabies free so far.

On the other hand, Africa and Asia has the highest burden of human rabies including South-East Asia: Bangladesh, Bhutan, DPRK, India, Indonesia, Myanmar, Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Thailand. The Asia Pacific region having 60% of the world’s population includes the world’s most populous countries – India and China. Asia alone shares almost half of the global rabies deaths annually.

2.1 Introduction
Typically, milk is obtained from domesticated animals (water buffalo, sheep, or goats) under farm-level circumstances. In smaller amounts, it can be utilized directly after boiling; but, in larger quantities, processing and storage are crucial. Farms provide their milk to milk vendors, who collect it in cans and deliver it to chilling centers or dairy processing plants. After milking, the milk is quickly chilled to 4°C, or it should be pasteurized and packaged within two hours. Before being marketed, milk must be pasteurized, with the exception of products that initially require raw milk or those that require direct application of heat, such as desiccation or another heating process. The market for novel goods and procedures is steadily growing. The main causes include rising disposable incomes, shifting consumer attitudes and concerns about safety, hygiene, and nutrition, and the entry of foreign companies.

2.2 Dairy plant requirements
The plant should be situated in an area free from waterlogging, well- protected, easily accessible by car, and equipped with a plentiful supply of drinkable water, a facility for disposing of waste, and energy.

2.2.1 Infrastructure requirements
For the receiving of milk, chilling, storing, separating, pasteurizing, homogenizing, packaging, and product manufacturing, civil works with appropriate space and machinery are needed. provisions for utility units such steam generation and refrigeration control, storage, and quality control. When choosing metals for equipment in dairy plants, look for materials that are nontoxic, tainting, corrosion-resistant, easy to clean, affordable, and long-lasting. Generally, alloys made of aluminum or 18:8 stainless steel are recommended.

The lack of mechanistic understanding of probiotic activity is a major drawback for the prediction of safety of probiotic intervention. The complex gut-associated microbial ecosystem and nutritionally related factors are the most important environmental triggers for the development and modification of chronic degenerative diseases including immune and metabolic pathologies. In fact, the interaction between the gut microbial ecosystem and the host is considered to be a critical factor in overall health or disease. Whether probiotics will exert protective, harmful, immune-stimulating or immune-suppressing effects on a host is dependent on the interaction between the microbial signals, the genetic make-up of the host and the effects by the environment. Many studies have revealed that certain probiotic bacteria stimulate immune cell proliferation and activity as evidenced by the production of cytokines and antibodies, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of the immune response against pathogens. Ng et al. (2009)

Intellectual property : Refers to creations of the mind: inventions, literary and artistic works, and symbols, names, images, and designs.

Veterinary Nuclear Medicine (VNM)

Veterinary Nuclear Medicine (VNM) is a specialized field that uses radioisotopes to detect, diagnose, and treat diseases. Gamma scintigraphy involves injecting radioactive tracer pharmaceuticals into the animal’s body and imaging them as they move through the body using a gamma radiation-sensitive camera. This technique provides a 2D or 3D image of the whole body or a specific organ, allowing for the estimation of the quantitative distribution within the region of interest (ROI). Advancements in gamma scintigraphy have allowed for the acquisition of information about both static and dynamic high-resolution images, such as heart wall motion, blood flow, and myocardial perfusion. Unlike other diagnostic modalities viz X-rays, ultrasonography, and CT; gamma scintigraphy offers functional information of specific organs. The most commonly used gamma radiation-emitting isotope is 99m-Technetium (99mTc), which emits a gamma energy of 98% 140-keV photon with only 10% internal conversion. Other radionuclides used in veterinary nuclear medicine facilities include iodine (123I and 131I), Gallium (67Ga), and Thallium (201Ti).

Plant family    :    Apiaceae
Synonyms      
English    :     Puerto Rican  Coriander, Black Benny, Saw leaf herb, Mexican coriander, Saw tooth coriander, Spiny coriander, Fitweed
Hindi    :    Bhandhania,Bhandhanya
Sanskrit    :    Phiranga
Kannada    :    Paramgi

Origin and Distribution

The plant is native to the Caribbean islands occuring from S.Mexico to Panama, Columbia, Bolivia, Brazil and Cuba to Trinidad. It was introduced to many tropical and subtriopical countries  where it is used as a substitute for coriander.

Integrated disease management includes use of physical, cultural, biological, chemical and biotechnological for disease management. It may comprise computer aided sampling, decision making, improved farm tools & equipment.Farmers are the primary decision makers in Integrated disease management programs. They have to decide individually and collectively how to manage all diseases that may harm crops.

Etiology

Pemphigus foliaceous is a bullous autoimmune skin disease of canines affect ing epidermis and hair follicles. The recorded targeted auto-antigen in canine pemphigus foliaceous is desmoglein 1 (Dsg 1). This auto-antibody binds to Dsg 1 which is a prominent component of desmosome in the superficial layer of epidermis and hair follicle. It may be due to loss of intercellular cohesion leading to acantholysis followed by formation of superficial vesicles and bul lae. The common sites for the development of pemphigus in dogs are dorsal lateral muzzle, temporal, planum nasale, pinnae, periorbital skin and paw pads.

4.1 Introduction
At the moment of secretion in the udder, milk is sterile; however, it is contaminated by bacteria before it is extracted from the udder. With the exception of mastitis, the bacteria are generally innocuous and restricted at this juncture. Microorganisms may contaminate the milk further during milking, handling, storage, and other pre-processing activities. The bacteria have the potential to either enhance the quality of milk or cause it to deteriorate. Some of the beneficial bacteria, particularly the lactic acid bacteria, are referred to as probiotics. These probiotics are gaining a more prominent position in nutraceutical dairy and other food products, which provide consumers with health benefits such as the control of diarrhoea, antihypertensive, hypocholesterolemia, immunostimulatory, and anticarcinogenic properties.

4.2 Lactic acid bacteria
This particular group of bacteria is capable of homofermentation, which is the process of fermenting lactose to lactic acid, and heterofermentation, which is the process of generating a high number of end products. They are commonly present in milk and are also used as starter cultures in the production of cultured dairy products, such as yoghurt.

Veterinary public health deals with the contributions of veterinary medicine to public health. It is concerned, in the first instance, with the control and elimination of zoonoses and also with the following areas of activity:
    ·    Food hygiene (production, processing and distribution of foods of animal origin)
    ·    Environmental contamination and degradation by animal wastes and animal products
    ·    Comparative medicine (eg. Studies in animals on naturally appearing cancer, cardiovascular disease, metabolic and other disorders encountered in humans)
    ·    Laboratory animal medicine
    ·    Education and training in VPH and communication with the public
    ·    Reproduction biology
    ·    Aspects of mental and societal health
    ·    Emergency veterinary functions in natural disasters and other catastrophes.

Antibiotic Resistance and Gene transfer
 
It is important that probiotic strains should be assessed for their phenotypical antibiotic resistance and potential to transfer resistance gene as otherwise they cannot be used in food (BgVV, 2000; Vankerckhoven et al., 2008). It is vital to do research on characterization of acquired resistance mechanisms and transferability of resistance genes and on methods for determining transferability.