eChapters

We, the participants of ITAF2023 visited The ocean farm under the guidance of Asst.Prof.Dr.Naphat Panthukumbol and Dr.Somrat Taweedet on 17/10/23 at 3:00 pm. The farm is certified by fisheries department and is located in Chonburi Province. The purpose of visit was to learn about the nursery rearing of shrimp and use of frozen artemia.

1) Nursery rearing details

The cultured species was Litopenaeus vannamei. Rearing was done from nauplii to PL15 stage. The farm is producing 2 variants named- ‘The ocean hero’ which is disease resistant and ‘The ocean speedy’ having high growth rate. They are procuring nauplii from Phuket. Then double certification from DOF and Burapha university lab is done to ensure SPF stock. The purchasing price of nauplii is 12,000 baht/ million nauplii and transportation done by plane. The culture period of shrimp is around 21 days.

To understand how population genetics came into being, and to appreciate its intellectual significance, a brief excursion into the history of biology is necessary. Darwin’s Origin of Species, published in 1859, propounded two main theses: firstly, that modern species were descended from common ancestors, and secondly that the process of natural selection was the major mechanism of evolutionary change. The first thesis quickly won acceptance in the scientific community, but the second did not. Many people found it difficult to accept that natural selection could play the explanatory role required of it by Darwin’s theory. This situation— accepting that evolution had happened but doubting Darwin’s account of what had caused it to happen—persisted well into the twentieth century (Bowler 1988).
Opposition to natural selection was understandable, for Darwin’s theory, though compelling, contained a major lacuna: an account of the mechanism of inheritance. For evolution by natural selection to occur, it is necessary that parents should tend to resemble their offspring; otherwise, fitness-enhancing traits will have no tendency to spread through a population. In the Origin, Darwin rested his argument on the observed fact that offspring do tend to resemble their parents—‘the strong principle of inheritance’—while admitting that he did not know why this was. Darwin did later attempt an explicit theory of inheritance, based on hypothetical entities called ‘gemmules’, but it turned out to have no basis in fact.
Darwin was troubled by not having a proper understanding of the inheritance mechanism, for it left him unable to rebut a powerful objection to his theory. For a population to evolve by natural selection, the members of the population must vary—if all organisms are identical, no selection can occur. So for selection to gradually modify a population over a long period of time, in the manner suggested by Darwin, a continual supply of variation is needed. Fleeming Jenkin argued that the available variation would be used up too fast (Jenkin 1867). His reasoning assumed a ‘blending’ theory of inheritance, i.e., that an offspring’s phenotypic traits are a ‘blend’ of those of its parents. (So, for example, if a short and a tall organism mate, the height of the offspring will be intermediate between the two.) Jenkin argued that given blending inheritance, a sexually reproducing population will become phenotypically homogenous in just a few generations, far shorter than the number of generations needed for natural selection to produce complex adaptations.

BE it enacted by Parliament in the Fifty-sixth Year of the Republic of India as Follows :
 
    1.    (1) This Act may be called the Patents (Amendment) Act, 2005. 
        (2) Sub-clause (ii) of clause (a), and clause (b), of section 37, sections 41,42,47,59 to 63 (both inclusive) and 74 shall come into force on such date as the Central Government may, by notification in the Official Gazette, appoint; and the remaining provisions of this Act shall be deemed to have come into force on the 1st day of January, 2005.

INTRODUCTION

1. Nematodes belong to the animal kingdom, and phylum Nematoda.
2. The body of nematodes is elongate ( thread like; nema in Greek means thread) without any segment.
3. It is cylindrical, tapering at each end especially towards the tail.
4. Most of the important parasitic genera belong to the order Tylenchida and few under Dorylaimida.

DEFINITION OF VIRUS

Viruses are very small (submicroscopic) infectious particles (virions) composed of a protein coat and a nucleic acid core. They carry genetic information encoded in their nucleic acid, which typically specifies two or more proteins. Translation of the genome (to produce proteins) or transcription and replication (to produce more nucleic acid) takes place within the host cell and uses some of the host’s biochemical “machinery”. Viruses do not capture or store free energy and are not functionally active outside their host. They are therefore parasites (and usually pathogens) but are not usually regarded as genuine microorganisms.

Mathwas (1981) considers a virus as a set of one or more template molecules normally encased in a protective coat or coats of protein or lipoprotein, which is able to organize its own replication only within suitable host cells where its production is:

1. Dependent on hosts protein synthesizing machinery (ribosomes).
2. Organised from pools of required material rather than binary fission and
3. Located at sites which are not separated from the host cell contents by a lipoprotein bilayer membrane.

Bos (1983) defines virus as an infectious agent often causing disease, invisible with the light microscope (Sub-microscopic), small enough to pass through a bacterial filter, lacking a metabolism of its own and depending on a living host cell for multiplication. Viruses are small packages of host alien genetic information of one type. (RNA or DNA), either in one strand or in a few segment. Encapsulated together or separately and enclosed in a coat of one or more types of protein, some time with an extra coat (envelope) and some other constituents.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF FUNGI

1. Thallus

The body of the fungus is called as Thallus, which is without stem root and leaves. It maybe Plasmodial, Pseudoplasmodial , Pseudomycelial or Mycelial. A single thread like filament is called as hypha. A hypha is made up of a thin, transparent tabular wall filled or lined with a layer of protoplasm.

A group of hypha constituting the body of fungus is called as mycelium may be septate or aseptate. i.e coenocytic.

a) Coenocytic or Nonseptate or Aseptate Mycelium

When mycelium is not divided by cross walls called as Cornocytic mycelium.

Depending upon the nature of parasitism with the host plant, mycelium is either ecotophytic or endophytic.

b) Septate Mycelium

When mycelium is divided by cross walls or septa called as septate mycelium.

DEFINITION

Bacteria belong to prokaryota which encompasses organisms with a primitive type of nucleus lacking a clearly defined membrane .The bacteria are smaller than fungi and measure about 0.5 to 1.0 x 2.0 to 5.0µ.

Structure of Bacteria

1. A bacterial cell consists of a cellwall and a compound membrane enclosing protoplasm.
2. Inside the protoplasm, nucleus, vacuoles, mesosomes, polysaccharides, lipids, mitochondric granules and spores are found.
3. Externally bacterial cells may show capsules, pili, fimbrae and flagella.
4. The bacterial cell contains a characteristics cell wall.
5. The cell wall of bacteria is composed of a peptidoglycan. It is composed of acetyle-glucosamine and cetyle-muramic acid.
6. The rigid peptidoglycan layer is located between the cytoplasmic membrane and an outer multiple tract layer.
7. The latter layer is composed of lipoprotein . It is common in gram negative bacteria.
8. Many bacteria possess other intracellular membrane systems such as mesosomes and chondrioids.
9. The mesosome structure is formed by an invagination of the cytoplasmic membrane.

Fungi, nematodes, bacteria, and viruses are probably the first things that come to mind when thinking of plant pathogens. These organisms certainly do cause damage to plants of economic importance, but it may surprise you to know that parasitic flowering plants are also important pathogens.There are few seed plants, which are parasitic on living plants and are called parasitic higher plants or Phanerogamic parasites. These parasitic higher plants attack some valuable crops and trees causing considerable losses. They produce flowers and seeds and belongs to several widely separated botanical families they differ to each other on their dependency on host plants. These parasites have haustoria as absorbing organ, which sent deep into the vascular bundle of the host to draw water and nutrients. More than 2500 species of higher plants are known to live parasitically on other plants.

PHYTOPLASMA OR MYCOPLASMA

Definition

Phytoplasmas are unicellular, ultramicroscopic, walless, prokaryotic, self- replicating, highly pleomorphic, filterable organisms or entities.

Mycoplasma lack rigid cell wall, being surrounded only by single triple unit membrane which allows them to be highly plemorphic. They assume vast array of shapes and size. They require sterols (Lipoproteins) for growth. Mycoplasma cannot be grown on artificial media and they reproduce by budding and binary fissions.

VIROIDS

Defnition

Viroid is circular, encapsulated, low molecular weight (1.1-1.3x105), self replicating, highly infectious ssRNA molecules .

General Characters

1. The viroid exists in in vivo as unencapsulated RNA.
2. They never contain any protein coat (capsid).
3. Genome of the viriod naked, single stranded ( RNA) with 250-400 nucleotide, either linear or mostly circular. Viroids are smaller in size than viruses i.e 50 nm or 1.1 to 1.3 X 103 molecular weight.
4. Despite its small size, the infectious RNA is replicated autonomously in susceptible cells; that is, no helper virus is required for multiplication.
5. The infectious RNA consists of one molecular species only.
6. Viroids are notable to synthesize protein and replicase enzyme required for replication.
7. Viroids replicate by direct RNA, copying in which all components required for viroid multiplication including RNA polymerase are provided by the host.
8. They cause diseases only in plants.
9. Viroids concentration and translocation is higher in growing parts of the plants (up to 0.2 mm from the apex)
10. Most of the types of symptoms observed with viral diseases also occurs viroids like epinasty, leaf distortions, vein clearing, localized chlorotic or necrotic spots, mottling of leaves, necrosis of leaves, and death of the whole plants.

ABSTRACT

Satellite-based hyperspectral imaging became areality in November 2000 with the successful launch and operation of the Hyperion system on board the EO-1 platform. Hyperion is a push broom imager with 220 spectral bands in the 400-2500 nm wavelength range, a 30 meter pixel size and a 7.5 km swath. Prelaunch characterization of Hyperion measured low signal to noise (SNR<40:1) for the geologically significant shortwave infrared (SWIR) wavelength region (2000- 2500 nm). The impact of this low SNR on Hyperion's capacity to resolve spectral detail is studied for the Musiri and Tattayyangarpettai regions of part of Namakkal and Tiruchirapalli districts of Tamil Nadu state, India which comprises a diverse range of minerals with narrow, diagnostic absorption bands in the SWIR. Following radiative transfer correction of the Hyperion radiance at sensor data to surface radiance (apparent reflectance), diagnostic spectral signatures were clearly apparent including: green vegetation; talc; dolomite; crystalline limestone, chlorite; white mica and sericite. Though the derived surface composition maps generated from these image endmembers were noisy (both random and column), the spatially coherent and correlated well with the known geology. The interpreted and processed mineral map is given below. In addition, the Hyperion data were used to measure and map spectral shifts of <10 nm in the SWIR related to white mica chemical variations.

Abstract

Satellite photographs depict exciting evidence on the migratory melodrama of river systems. A study has been conduced in parts of Tamil Nadu using IRS-IA Satellite pictures, archaeology and Tamil literature, which reveals that from Pleistocene to 2700 years B.P.(Before Present) the river Cauvery flowed in a northeasterly direction from the Stanley reservoir via Chinnar, Palakkodu, Mattur, Tiruppathur (Tiruppattur), Gudiyatham (Gudiyattam), Vellore and Walajapet to meet the sea at Madras. From 2700 to 2300 years B.P., it flowed via Uttangarai and Tirukkovilur to meet the bay of Bengal near Pondicherry, over which the present-day Ponnaiyar is a misfit stream . From 2300 to 1300 year B.P. it has flowed via Erode, Tirukkampuliyur, Alagarai , Tiruchy, Kiranur and Pudukkottai meeting the sea in the region where the present-day Agniar and Ambuliar meet the sea. Subsequently, between 1600 and 1300 years B.P., the Cauvery flowed along the present-day tracts of the Vennar and Vettar, after which it seems to have flowed as the Kodamurutti, Arasalar and PalanCauvery from 1300 to 1000 years B.P. From about 900 years B.P. it flowed via Tirupurampayam (Tirupurambiyam), Achalpuram till around 750 years B.P. and then it is stabilised as the Colleroon (Kollidam). Such periods and phases of river migration as well as their implications in the search for archaeological remains are discussed in this paper.

3.1 Physical characteristics

There is obviously an association between the amount of rainfall and the amount of soil erosion, i.e. more rain goes with more erosion, and less rain with less erosion, but in statistical terms the correlation between the two is poor. The same total quantity of rain can on different occasions result in widely differing amounts of erosion, and so other more specific measures are required to describe the ability of rainfall to cause erosion. In this chapter we shall establish the known facts about the main physical properties of rainfall, and then in chapter 4 show how these properties are related to the erosive power of rainfall.

3.1.1 Quantity of rainfall

Any measure of rainfall amount is a sample, and so associated with the inevitable problems of sampling, namely, ⁴is the sample representative of the whole?’ and ‘is the sample measured accurately?’ On both counts the data of rainfall which are usually available are of very doubtful reliability. Considering firstly the size of the sample measured, a very intensive network of rain gauges such as that established in an experimental catchment might be as dense as one gauge per 25 hectares, but this corresponds (with a 125 mm diameter gauge) to a sample of about one in 20 million, which would for any other scientific measurement be considered totally inadequate. The density of gauges in a country which considers itself very well provided might be one gauge per 25 square kilometres - a sample of one in 2 000 million, and in an undeveloped country the density of one gauge per 2 500 square kilometres is a sample of 1 in 200 000 000 000! Secondly, the siting of this remarkably small number of gauges is usually arranged primarily on convenience, eg where they can be easily read and contained, with little or no consideration of whether the site is representative of the whole. Thirdly, the accuracy of the measurement is usually unknown and studies have shown that variations in the shape and size of the instrument, and in the height at which it is mounted, and the way it is shielded from the wind, can seriously affect the recorded amount of rainfall. Clearly, even the apparently straightforward question of how much rain falls is not answered as precisely as might be imagined from a survey of rainfall tables and maps.

X-ray photons are produced as a result of electrons hitting metal while extremely rapidly moving at high speed. This is achieved through the application of an electric current to a cathode (negative electrode) via a high voltage power source (electricity) which enables electrons to be released from the cathode into the X-ray tube. These electrons, being negatively charged, are attracted to the anode (positive electrode or target). When the electrons strike the metallic target (anode) in the tube, X-rays and heat are produced. Basically the process of producing an X-ray involves a source that produces X-rays and radiating them through a body or object, where they are absorbed at different rates until they are detected by a sensitive film or cassette. It should be mentioned at this point that most of the energy of the electrons is not converted into X-rays but is dissipated as heat. In fact 99% of the energy dissipated in the target is lost as heat, and only 1% is converted to X-ray energy.

The insect larva after the complete development emerges out from the egg by rupturing the egg shell chorion. It passes through several stages called as instars. Each instar is separated by a moult; the growth from larva to adult involves some degree of morphological changes or metamorphosis. The egg hatches into 1st instar larva which later moults to the second instar larva and so on until at a final moult the adult imago stage. The insect moult takes place after attaining adult except in the insect apterygote insect. In family pantatomide full insect moulting occurs. Many insects especially those with a small number of instars (mosquitoes) and (chrysocoris stolli) insect moulting occurs as Ist, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th imago instar and then after sometime adults insect emerges.

Metamorphosis of Insect: The development process by which first instar immature stage is transformed into the adult is called metamorphosis, which means literally change in the form. The developing stage is morphologically different from the adult. The degree of difference varies from slight to extreme with many intermediates stage. E.g., Cockroaches, Butterfly, Chrysocoris stolli Wolf. The insect may be grouped on dependance of degree of metamorphosis as:

Introduction

In order to provide for the establishment of an effective system for protection of plant varieties, the rights of farmers and plant breeders and to encourage the development of new varieties of plants it has been considered necessary to recognize and protect the rights of the farmers in respect of their contribution made at any time in conserving, improving and making available plant genetic resources for the development of the new plant varieties. Moreover to accelerate agricultural development, it is necessary to protect plant breeders’ rights to stimulate investment for research and development for the development of new plant varieties.

Introduction

The search for order in the location and size of settlements continues. Certain geographers examined the size of distribution of settlements and described in graphical form the relationship between the number and size of settlements. Their methods were radically different in that they were not deterministic, rather than making a set of assumptions, deriving a theory and testing it against reality, they observed the size and number of settlements in various countries and noted a common characteristic, which was called the rank size rule. Having once observed this order in the real world, they then sought to explain it. A relationship which is observed on several occasions is called an empirical regularity. The rank size rule is one such empirical regularity.

The rank size rule was first observed by Auerbach in 1913 but was proposed and popularized by G.K. Zipf in his book “Human Behaviour and the Principle of Least Effort”. Since then, many writers have attempted to explain it but the basic aim has always remained the same: to find a graphical description to the size distribution of cities which would apply to the situation prevailing in many countries.

Rank Size Rule: Theoretical Base and Concept

Rank size rule is a theory describing numerical distribution of settlement, which recognises an empirical regularity whereby the product obtained by multiplying a city’s rank by its size is equal to a constant, the population of the country’s largest city such that for a given settlement system

The Red Data Book is a public document that is created for recording endangered and rare species of plants, animals, fungi as well as some local subspecies that are present in a particular region. It helps us in providing complete information for research, studies and also for monitoring the programs on rare and endangered species and their habitats. Many nations of the world have prepared Red Data Books for their biological resources. Some Red Data Books include both plants and animals whereas, generally the plants are dealt separately from animals. This book is mainly created to identify and protect those species which are on the verge of extinction (“Extinction is the process of evolution that leads to the disappearance of a population or species”).
Whereas red lists of threatened plants are being highly developed for wild plants and even replaced by green lists (Imboden, 1989) and blue lists (Gigon et al., 2000), ornamental plants still lack similar lists.
13.1 Brief History
The name of this book has its origins in Russia, it was originally known as the Red Data Book of the Russian Federation or the RDBRF. The book was based on research conducted between 1961 and 1964 by biologists in Russia. Hence, it is also called the Russian Red Data Book.

Mechanical damage in oil seeds like soya bean can be induced at any time during harvesting, handling, conditioning and sowing operations. There is relationship between moisture and mechanical damage. In general the low moisture containing seeds are more prone for mechanical damage than the high moisture containing seeds. In this experiment we look for this relationship by measuring seed quality parameters like germination and leakage (electrical conductivity).

A responsibly behaving organization creates a positive impact on society and its operating environment. Globally, there is a rising demand and expectation of people from organizations to act in manners that result into shared value and prosperity. This calls for bringing a major change in the current approach of organizations and their human resources.

Three frameworks could be popularly referred to when we intend to discuss responsible behaviour of an organization. These approaches have been highlighted considering practical significance and ability to fundamentally change the ground rules of organizational day to day working. This includes.