eChapters

1. The Stability and Shelf-Life of Food

    1.    In the UK, the date coding to be used is determined by the total life of the product: for microbiologically highly perishable foods, a ‘use by’ date is needed, while for other foods, including foods with more than 18 months’ shelf-life, a ‘best before’ or a ‘best before end’ date is needed.

    2.    IFT (1974) definition of shelf-life, is : The period between manufacture and retail purchase of a food product during which the product is of satisfactory quality.

    3.    Shelf-life is defined as the time during which the food product will :

        i.    remain safe;
        ii.    be certain to retain desired sensory, chemical, physical and 
    microbiological characteristics;
        iii.    comply with any label declaration of nutritional data,

The Himalayas, which cover 594 400 km2, run for about 2 500 km from west to east, between Nanga Parbat (8126 m) in the west and Namcha Barwa (7756 m) in the east with three parallel ranges namely The Great or Inner Himalayas, The Lesser Himalaya or Himachal and TheShiwaliks (Fig.1).The fish species distribution in the Himalayan streams depends on the flow rate, nature and substratum, water temperature, and the availability of food.This region has a dense net of rivers and streams, as well as numerous lakes, manmade reservoirs, floodplains and swamps, man-made ponds and irrigation canals of cold-water character. These water resources have a diverse fish fauna that support the livelihoods of rural communities within the region. They also provide various opportunities for development of cold-water fisheries and aquaculture.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Textural assessment has long been used to indicate quality in agricultural soil and although it contains an element of subjective judgement, a skilled surveyor can differentiate many grades of texture. Soil texture correlates with the distribution of particle size in the soil, though this is not the only component in texture. Although particle size distribution is an objective attribute of soils and can, in principle, be measured with accuracy, the determination is in practice quite difficult and certainly laborious, so that it is customary in soil mechanical analysis to divide the soil into several broad fractions: sand, silt and clay are the principal categories. The clay fraction, which comprises the smallest particles in the soil, is generally defined as the fraction smaller than a nominal diameter of 2 jam. The practical division is, however, based on the velocity of fall of soil particles through a fluid, calculating the diameter of the particles from the equation of Stokes

The possibility of the drifting of continents was first suggested by the French scholar Antonio Snider in 1858, but this was so much opposed to the scientific view then prevailing that nobody took notice of it. In 1910 F.B. Taylor of America invoked the hypothesis of horizontal displacement of continents or continental drift with a view to explaining the distribution of mountain ranges, but for various reasons the hypothesis of Taylor received scant attention. German Professor Alfred Wegener was the first to put forward this idea in the form of a theory in 1912 and published a detailed discussion of it in 1915. But an account of the First World War (1914-18) this could not attract the attention of many scientists. In 1924 an English translation of Wegener’s book was published. Since then it has attracted much attention and publicity, and a huge literature has grown around this theory.

Wegener was primarily a climatologist and the main problem he wanted to explain was the change of climates in the geological past. There are several geological evidences to show that there have been important and large scale changes in the climates of the world in the geological past. The occurrence of coal in the cool middle latitudes indicates that the climate of these regions was hot and humid in the carboniferous times and the natural vegetation was dense forest which ultimately resulted in the formation of huge coal deposits. On the other hand, in India, South Australia, Brazil or South Africa where the climate is warm today, there are evidences of cold climate and the presence of glaciers in the carboniferous period. The only conclusion that can be reached from this is that either the climatic zones have moved or if they have not, then there has been movement of the landmasses. There are several difficulties in postulating shifts in the climatic belts of the world as their geographical distribution is governed primarily by the sun. It, therefore, appears to be more probable that the landmasses have changed their position.

Isostasy is derived from the Greek word isostasios meaning ‘in equipoise’ or in a state of balance. American geologist Dutton was the first to use the term isostasy in 1889 for the state of gravitational equilibrium that exists between continents and ocean floor and the mountains, plateaus and plains on a rotating earth, in accordance with densities of their underlying rocks. Dutton was of the view that the height of these different features was related to their density. In other words, the higher features were composed of rocks of lower density and the features of lesser to height were made of rocks of higher density. For instance, the continental blocks whose average height is about 5 kms above the ocean floor are composed of lighter rocks than the latter, and to compensate for their higher height the continental blocks go deeper into the earth so that the continents and ocean basins may remain in equilibrium. The same argument applies to the mountain ranges. The excess mass of lighter materials which rises in the form of mountain chains on the earth’s surface is compensated by light materials extending as roots into the denser strata below. In other words, the upper part of the earth’s crust is built of lighter rocks which is floating on the substratum of denser rocks. The hypothesis of the sialic rocks floating over the sima of the sub-stratum had been first put forward by Sir George Airy of Britain in 1855. The use of the word floating, of course, did not imply that the sub-stratum was in a liquid condition.

Introduction 
Food is the prime necessity of the life without which the existence of the human being may be perhaps dubious. India is agriculture predominant country where majority of its population depends on agriculture directly or indirectly. Agriculture plays a vital role in India’s economy. About 54.60 per cent of the total workforce is engaged in agriculture and allied sector activities (Census, 2011). Agriculture and Allied sector accounts for about 18.4 per cent of India’s GVA at current prices during 2022-23. Given the importance of the agriculture sector, Government of India has taken several steps for its development in a sustainable manner (Agriwelfare.gov.in/en/Dept). India with massive network of about 63 State Agricultural Universities (SAUs), three Central Agricultural Universities (CAUs), four deemed universities and four central universities with agricultural faculty along with Indian Council of Agricultural Research accords due priority to the agricultural education, research and extension (ICAR Annual report, 2023-24). The role of these universities & ICAR in addressing the farm related problems cannot be overlooked. As per the All India report on Agriculture Census, 2015-16, India is a country with majority of the farmers being small (17.60 %) and marginal (68.50 %). Agriculture is very diversified with varied agro-climatic conditions which require different practices and strategies to perform. The role of agricultural research and extension in achieving food self-sufficiency is immense. Agriculture is a state subject and various players make agriculture profitable and farming a viable option. But the data indicates that, there is scarcity of extension officers at various levels in India. As per the report of the Committee on Doubling Farmers’ Income, 2017 (Volume XI “Empowering the Farmers 214 Innovations of University Extension in Indian Agriculture through Extension and Knowledge Dissemination”) reported that, the ratio of Extension Service Provider (ESP) to operational farm holdings is around 1: 1156. Coupled with this, the system has mainly focused on the input supply chain and crop cultivation activities. In the era of 21st century, innovation is the buzz word, and pervading in all spheres of life. It is astonishing to know that, todays discoveries are outdated tomorrow. In today’s rapidly changing world, innovation is crucial for organizations and societies to adapt, grow, and maintain a competitive edge. It drives economic development, addresses complex challenges, and improves the quality of life. Over the years, agriculture sector has also seen rapid changes in all aspects, and India’s efforts in this development pursuit are quite inspiring. Starting from food deficit nation to the nation with surplus food production, the role of agricultural research and extension viz a viz., innovation cannot be overlooked. As a result of bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh in the year 2014, the Professor Jayashankar Telangana Agricultural University was established on 03-09-2014 by an act of legislature. Professor Jayashankar Telangana State Agricultural University (PJTSAU) named in honour and memory of Professor Jayashankar, an eminent educationist and an ardent Telangana ideologue is the only Farm University of Telangana State. PJTAU has eleven constituent colleges with eight of those devoted to faculty of Agriculture, two to faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology and one to faculty of Community Science. In addition, there are twelve constituent polytechnics (eleven in Agriculture and Agricultural Engineering). The research component in the agriculture is addressed by Sixteen Agricultural Research Stations, including three Regional Agricultural Research Stations. As part of front-line extension support to reach the unreached, the University has established about nine District Agricultural Advisory and Transfer of Technology Centres (DAATTCs), eight Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), one each of Extension Education Institute (EEI), Agricultural Information and Communication Centre (AI&CC), Agricultural Technology Information Centre (ATIC) and Electronic Media Wing spread across the State to cater to various needs of the farming community. To address the farm problems and make agriculture profitable, the Agricultural University not only strives in research but also a pioneer in the institutional Innovations of University Extension system to cater to the emerging needs of the farming community by means of various innovations such as., Flag method of Extension, Interactive Information Dissemination System, Innovative farmers’ networking, Developing Farmer – Master trainers, Interactive

8.1 INTRODUCTION

The development of a soil profile involves the mobilization of major and minor elements and their subsequent deposition elsewhere in the profile or removal in the drainage water. For a full understanding of these processes we need to know what are the forms and reactivities of the soil constituents, the nature and mode of action of the mobilizing agents, the forms in which the mobilized material is transported—whether colloidal or in true solution, whether in ionic or complex form, whether alone or in association with other soil constituents—as well as its stability towards oxidation and reduction, microbial action, pH, and sorption and coprecipitation. The availability of micronutrients to plants is presumably governed by factors such as these. The current concern with problems of soil contamination has brought to the attention of soil chemists numerous toxic metals that were previously regarded as essentially the province of the geochemist.

It is probably true to say that no one of the factors listed above can be considered in isolation, but so far as any one factor is of dominant importance, this is nature of the mobilizing species; this determines the form in which the metal is transported, and its ultimate fate in the soil or in the drainage water.

This chapter is an attempt to summarize our present knowledge of the processes responsible for the mobilization and immobilization of metals in soils.

Abstract

Though people belonging to different disciplines from the common citizen to top level administrators are familiar with cyclones, floods, earthquakes, landslides, droughts, etc., the tsunami which struck and devastated over 1000 km long Tamil Nadu coast was not only unexpected but also an unknown phenomenon for the people of this part of the region. The Government of Tamil Nadu, though faced with this disaster for the first time, has efficiently managed the crisis owing to clear policy directions from the top political executive of the government, the planned working of the ministers, the committed service rendered by the senior officials and the tireless efforts of district collectors and their supporting staff down the line. The immediate measures taken in search, rescue and relief operations are detailed in this paper. Also covered are the rehabilitation measures undertaken including those for orphaned children and unmarried girls and the steps adopted for the prevention of epidemics.

Keywords: Tsunami Disaster, State Administration, Relief and Rehabilitation, Tamil Nadu.

INTRODUCTION

India is traditionally vulnerable to natural disasters on account of its geo-climatic conditions. Floods, droughts, cyclones, earthquakes and landslides have been occurring regularly in some part of the country or the other. In Tamil Nadu, the unprecedented drought in 2002-03, followed by another drought of comparatively less severity in 2003-04 and the floods in the northern coastal districts in October-November, 2004 had kept the State machinery on constant alert. But the tsunami that struck the coastal districts on 26^th December, 2004 was an altogether new and nightmarish experience. It was a disaster, the like of which, had not been seen before. The suddenness and the ferocity with which the waves gushed into the habitations along the 1076 km long coast line, taking the people totally unaware, caused unprecedented damage, death and destruction and posed the greatest challenge to the State administration. However, the state faced the challenge successfully, thanks to the vision and commitment shown by the Government and the timely help rendered by a number of non-governmental organisations and groups.

Increasing pressure on freshwater resources has created interest in the use of saline water for agricultural production, particularly where high-quality irrigation water is limited. This chapter examines the management possibilities associated with using saline water while addressing the risks of salinity to soil and crops. It focuses on the role of selected nutrients and soil amendments in improving crop performance under saline conditions. The roles of potassium and phosphorus are discussed in relation to plant nutrition and tolerance to salinity. Zinc is also considered for its importance in maintaining plant nutritional balance under saline conditions. The chapter further examines gypsum as an amendment and its role in managing saline soil conditions. Organic matter is discussed for its contribution to soil physical, chemical and biological properties, while biofertilizers are considered as a component of management under saline environments. The integrated use of nutrients, amendments, organic materials and biological inputs provides approaches for improving the productivity of saline soils. The chapter therefore links saline-water use with appropriate soil and nutrient management for sustainable crop production

This chapter examines the human user as the central component of every ergonomic system. It considers physical, temporal, cognitive and affective characteristics that influence how individuals interact with tools, tasks and environments. Biomechanical principles—including force, posture, movement, balance, leverage and energy—are introduced to explain physical performance and injury risk. The musculoskeletal system and the effects of sustained or repetitive activity are discussed alongside differences in user strength and capability. Cognitive processes such as perception, attention, memory and decision-making are linked with emotions, mood and workplace satisfaction. Together, these dimensions demonstrate why effective ergonomic design must accommodate the complete physical and psychological experience of users.

The pandemic in 2019-2022 spread swiftly and became global in no time, caused by SARS-CoV-2. Vaccines were rapidly developed against the virus to restore public health and save global economy. Vaccines for immunisation drives were developed in a year of the pandemic becoming global and approved for ‘emergency use’ following expeditious development protocols. Vaccine development employed numerous nucleic acid, adenovirus and protein-based state-of-art molecular platforms, alongside the conventional attenuated and inactivated virus approaches. The majority of the attempts were successful and approved for use. All the approved vaccines were found safe and effective as per Phase I through Phase III clinical trials’ results. Mass immunisation drives demonstrably led to reduced hospitalisation, low disease severity and less mortality. Yet, there were initial vaccination hesitation across the world due to associated safety concerns about its possible long-term negative consequences. A part of it was attributed to technical reasons (as clinical trials were not fully complete with sturdy and convincing outcomes), and a majority was due to the misinformation that floated on the social media and other digital communications. Vaccine deployment across the globe was far from being equitable. Thus, immunisation was rapid in higher income (developed) nations with access to innovative advanced vaccines while low immunisation rates were seen in the low- and medium-income countries accessing majorly the vaccines based on simple technology. Given the scale and spread of the pandemic, scaled-up vaccine production and equitable distribution to limit viral spread and improve global health and socioeconomy were critical. This chapter attempts to dissect these scenarios and lessons learnt from these to prepare better for any such pandemic in future.

1. Introduction

The advent of computers, the Internet and other ICT technologies have enhanced the nature of tasks. No one is immune from technology. Technologies have paved the way for information transformation. Today every section of society is making full use of technologies to fulfil their needs. Electronic devices have affected human life to a great extent. These devices have changed the working styles of human beings. Working with electronic devices is much better than manual work. Therefore, every sector of human working society is updating itself by using or implementing electronic devices. The higher education department is no exception to this. Today every sector of higher education department is using these modern tools and technologies not only for official works but also for teaching. Library is the most important part of Higher Education Institutions and today the entire structure of the library has changed. Today computersare being used in every section of the library and the main work of the library- issue/return is also being done through the use of computers and the Internet. The resources available in the library have also become electronic. Every resource like books, magazines, research journals, dictionaries, glossaries, bibliographies, biographies, who’s who etc, is now being published in electronic form and the library has to purchase these resources for its users.

It is well recognized that sustainable management and sustainable livelihoods are inseparable. If neglected and if the present trends are not corrected in time, everyone’s future is threated. On the other hand, there is increasing recognition of living examples and demonstrated evidences of how the eco agricultural practices can help provide a solution to some of the major problems of today and tomorrow. Also, the main stream international agencies are emphasizing that agro-ecological approaches are the way forward. What the policy makers, farmers and people would like to know is How !it has been our experience that is most countries of the developing world the answer to ‘How’ of eco-agricultural is being demanded! In January 2016, a global team was invited by the office of Prime Minister of India to discuss and prepare an approach paper on Agro-ecology ( or Eco Agriculture including Organic farming). The team consisted of J. Fagan, Hans Harren, M.H. Mehta and A. Thimmaiah who after intensive discussions had prepared several presentations – first given to the group of top officials of Government of India departments and institutions as organized through the office of the prime minister. This was later followed by a meeting with Prime Minister Modi. During this meeting, the clear question asked was, “You need not convince us that agro ecology and organic farming are the way forward, but the question is how? How do we expand this system to national scale ?”

It is well recognized that sustainable management and sustainable livelihoods are inseparable. If neglected and if the present trends are not corrected in time, everyone’s future is threated. On the other hand, there is increasing recognition of living examples and demonstrated evidences of how the eco agricultural practices can help provide a solution to some of the major problems of today and tomorrow. Also, the main stream international agencies are emphasizing that agro-ecological approaches are the way forward. What the policy makers, farmers and people would like to know is How !it has been our experience that in most countries of the developing world the answer to ‘How’ of eco-agricultural is being demanded!

The Imperative for Regional Collaboration Climate change poses a transboundary threat that no single nation can address in isolation. In CMCs, rural populations, often dependent on agriculture and natural resources, are disproportionately vulnerable. For instance, Assam, India, faces rising temperatures and frequent floods, threatening 86% of its agriculture-dependent rural population. Similarly, Bangladesh, a climate change hotspot, grapples with salinization and cyclones that disrupt rural livelihoods. Regional collaboration offers a pathway to pool resources, share expertise, and develop scalable solutions. As the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia highlights, collaborative action enhances food and water security through shared knowledge

There is no terminal of any kind of research, rather they presence a static snap of the gamut of ecological dynamics and functions.

The following scopes for future research

• To construct modelling on resilience, beyond agriculture like livestock f ishery, forestry.

• To create new Algorithm of prediction in ecological behaviour and dynamics

• Gender and economic factors in resilience study and analysis

• Ecological resilience in different agro climatic zones covering coastal ecosystem, Himalayan ecosystem red lateritic ecosystem etc

• Policy research in ensuring and intriguing ecological resilience as well as social resilience on the common platform of production behaviour

• Importance of ecological resilience in the perspective of climate change and global warming

ABSTRACT

Agriculture is backbone of our country, India is lives in its villages, these are all vibrant statements about our nation and our farming system but now the situation has been turned out in to urbanization in terms of migration.UN also announces this year (2014) as an international year of family farming in this context, the real status of FF in India is a biggest question mark. This means FF is not happening as expected even though Tamil Nadu is one of the familiar state across India for family farming but due to lack of youth involvement in agriculture, Family Farming is not happening in a full-fledged and unfortunate thing is it is even more decreased. If this situation persists over a period of time, the above said vibrant statements will become spiritless, hence the solutions for this problem is Indiais reverse migration and every home should have farmer. These are all possible, if the youth is attracted towards farming and adopt Family Farming System (FFS). The statistics says in Tamil Nadu, 13 percent of youth only involved in farming and the population according to the census 2011 is about 7.2 crore, which means meager youth were involved in farming. Although Tamilnadu is one of the fastest growing urban state yet more than half of the population lives in villages and noticeable fact is more than half of them are under the age of 30. So that youth isthe only and powerful source to make agriculture through Family Farming. We believe that if and only if agriculture becomes intellectually, economically viable and bounty which fetches rewards, the younger generation of Tamilnadu will be interested to take forth farming as profession and make Family farming as an attractive one. This paper will explain possible areas to attract youth in Farming and adopt Family Farming System.

It was in April-May 1968 that the country witnessed the wonderful spectacle of large arrivals of wheat grain in the mandis of the Punjab like Moga and Khanna. Wheat production in the country rose to nearly 17 million tonnes that year, from the previous best harvest of 12 million tonnes. Indira Gandhi released a special stamp titled “Wheat Revolution” in July 1968, to mark this new phase in our agricultural evolution. The nation rejoiced at our coming out of a “ship to mouth” existence. Later in 1968, Dr. William Gaud of the U.S. referred to the quantum jumps in production brought about by semi-dwarf varieties of wheat and rice as a “Green Revolution.” This term has since come to symbolise a steep rise in productivity and, thereby, of production of major crops.

Wheat production this year may reach a level of 85 million tonnes, in contrast to the 7 million tonnes our farmers harvested at the time of Independence in 1947. I visited several grain mandis in Moga, Khanna, Khananon and other places in the Punjab in April 2011 and experienced concurrently a feeling of ecstasy and agony. It was heart-warming to see the great work done by our farm men and women under difficult circumstances when, often, they had to irrigate the fields at night due to lack of availability of power during the day.

The wildlife (protection) Act, 1972 (No. 53 of 1972) consists of 7 chapters, 6 schedules and 66 sections. This act has been amended in 1980. This act further amended as The Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act- 2002, from 17thJanuary, 2003. This act deals with all those matters related to wildlife in captivity/free range for conservation.

Chapter I (Preliminary)

It discusses about the terminologies and definition
Captive animal means any animal, specified in Schedule 1, Schedule II, Schedule III or Schedule IV, which is captured or kept or bred in captivity.
Circus means an establishment, whether stationary or mobile where animals are kept or used wholly or mainly for the purpose of performing tricks or manoeuvrers.

1. Introduction

India is an exquisite example of biodiversity. From time immemorial scholars like Charaka, Barathwaj, Athreyan, Agnivesha, Dhanyandhari, Shushruthan, Wakbadan and Bharathduja etc. have studied and explored the possibility of such a diversity for human welfare and the most conspicuous exploration in this field has lead to the discovery of so many indigenous medicinal plants that were scripted mainly in Vedas (1500 BC) that contain rich materials on herbal lore of that time. Charaka in his medical treatise – Charaka samhita delt with innumerable medicinal plants, their usage and descriptions. Besides the two above said texts, treatise like Sushruth samhita and Ashtangha hridaya samhita are a few among other precious ancient texts. Thus the gradual accumulation of practical and systematic medical knowledge lead to the formation of Ayurveda.

Ayurveda - the science of life, prevention and longevity, is the oldest and most holistic or comprehensive medical system available. It was placed in written form over 2000 years ago. Ayurveda is said to have been first complied as a text by Agnivesha (Agniveshtantra). This text was later revised by Charaka and renamed as Charaka samhita (completed by Dhridhabala). The concept of medicines envisaged in the Ayurveda comes from the monumental scripture called Ashtanga hridaya and Sahasrayoga.