eChapters

Abstract

Kaliasaur landslide located 18km from Srinagar on the NH-58 in Uttrakhand Himalayas has been repeatedly sliding for the last over 5 – 6 decades totally paralyzing the transport operations in the region and causing beeline of issues not only for the people living in the hilly state but also the tourists and the pilgrims. The study of Geosystems & geodynamics, large scale micro zonation and geotechnical studies using RMR and SMR techniques show that the slide is located in high hazard zone and follow the pattern of wedge and planar failures with vulnerable zone of factor of safety. The toe erosion by the acutely turning Alaknanda river and the mitigation measures in the form of slope disturbance in the upslope part rather protecting slide, has been responsible for the recurring slides. The study further revealed that excessive rainfall is also a triggering parameter and the crown part is widening. On the basis of the studies, mitigation measures have also been brought out.

Keywords: Kaliasaur landslides, Micro LSV zonation, Factors of landslides, Mitigation.

The process of vaccine development involves numerous stages from research, discovery, innovation, formulation, testing, mass production, logistics, deployment and administering the vaccine to the target population. The COVID-19 pandemic expedited the endeavour to develop vaccine worldwide that is unparalleled in history. In addition to the steps that were similar during the usual vaccine development process, it called for stronger collaborative teamwork with stricter deadlines during the pandemic due to the emergency situation that built up everywhere (in its spread as well as severity). Research was expedited, potential candidate vaccines were discovered and the proofs of concept were designed that paved the way for pre-clinical efficacy testing. Multiple-step clinical trials to ascertain that the vaccines were effective and safe at least for ‘emergency use’ in human subjects were carried out swiftly. The emergency usage regulatory approval and recommending the usage pattern involved accelerated review procedures. It immediately followed rapid scaling-up for increased production in order to meet the need to save as many human lives as possible across the globe. The approved vaccines were simultaneously evaluated for safety through dedicated pharmacovigilance systems. The future of vaccine development shall also focus on improving the worldwide access to vaccines, managing the virus variants and streamlining mass vaccination campaigns. Comprehending the research, development and administration phases to create and implement life saving vaccinations within the regulatory framework amid international health emergencies as encountered during the COVID-19 pandemic and the enormous collective endeavours are highlighted in this chapter.

Important Points to Remember

Apple

• Botanical name: Malus x domestica Borkh.
• Family: Rosaceae
• 2n: 34
• Origin: Asia Minor to Western Himalayas

Introduction

India is the largest producer of vegetables in the world after China, contributes over 13% to world vegetable production and occupies first position in the production of cauliflower, second in onion and third in cabbage. Amongst vegetables, India is the largest producer of Ginger and Okra and ranks second in Potatoes production (10%), Onions, Cauliflowers, Brinjal, and Cabbages, etc. During 2012-13, India exported vegetables worth  1516.33 crores. The average productivity of vegetables in the country is 17.61 t/ha.

Sampling for nematode population estimation

Sampling for nematode communities has been the basis for the development of appropriate control strategy. The major purposes of sampling for nematodes include population estimation for general detection, advisory or predictive programme, disease diagnosis and also for research purposes.

Plant parasitic nematodes are usually confined to top 20-25 cm soil and may vary depending upon the soil type, moisture content, host plant and climatic condition. Surface soil do not harbour any nematode. The roots and rhizosphere of severely infested plants do not harbour numerous nematodes as the nematodes tend to move to adjacent healthy plants. Hence soil and root samples need to be collected from plants showing partial symptoms. Samples should not be collected from dead or wilted plants.

Horticulture sector, comprising fruits, vegetables, floriculture, medicinal and aromatic crops, mushroom, spices and plantation crops, had witnessed phenomenal growth in production and productivity during the last two decades. Resultantly, horticulture in India is recognised as one of the fastest growing sectors in the world. The production has reached to 351.92 million tonnes in 2022-23 as compared to 231 million tonnnes in 2010. Progressive urbanization, increased spendable income and awareness for balanced and nutritious food have contributed towards increasing demand of horticulture produce. The increasing demand coupled with higher income returns per unit area has triggered this growth pattern, which has been largely possible due to policy environment to support horticulture both for research and development.

Tomato, the ‘Apple of Love’ or ‘Golden Apple’ is one of the most popular, widely grown and highly praised vegetable in the world. In India, commonly referred as ‘Poor Man’s Orange’, has wider coverage in comparison to other vegetables. Tomato universally treated as ‘Protective Food’, is eaten raw or cooked or in processed form (soup, juice, ketchup, puree, paste and powder, green tomato - pickles and preserves) or it supplies vitamin C and adds variety of colours and flavours to food. It is a very good source of income to small and marginal farmers and contributes to nutrition of consumers. Tomato seed contains 24% oil used as salad oil and in manufacture of margarine. By virtue of its many attributes, it is considered as a favourite crop for research in physiology and cytogenetics, all over the world. Tomato is also rich in medicinal value. The pulp and juice are digestible, mild aperient, a promoter of gastric secretion and blood purifier. Tomato, a primary source of lycopene, showed significant association with low prostate cancer risk and cancers of digestive tract. It is one of the best vegetables which keeps our stomach and intestine in good condition. Tomato juice has become an exceedingly popular appetizer and beverage.

10.1 Introduction

Food safety and quality are the two important factor which results in consumer food choices. Nowadays consumers are demanding food which is safe and of high quality in terms of nutrition due to a healthier life style. Food safety and quality are the terms used interchangeably. Food safety refers to all those hazards, that make food injurious to the health of the consumer and it is not negotiable. Food quality includes attributes that influences the product's value to the consumer. This includes both negative and positive attributes; negative attributes includes spoilage, contamination, discoloration, off-odours and positive attributes include colour, flavour, texture and processing method of the food. This distinction between safety and quality has implications for public policy and influences the nature of the food control system. Food control is defined as a mandatory regulatory activity which provides consumer protection and ensures food is safe, wholesome and fit for human consumption during production, handling, storage, processing, and distribution.

Despite the huge efforts made by the food safety authorities and industries, food safety still remains a critical issue. In food industries, producers have to satisfy both safety and quality criteria for their products to the consumer. Food processors have multiple options in terms of different quality and management systems, they have to choose the most appropriate one for its specific activity and should establish, document and implement effective systems in the processing area for managing quality and safety of the product. Over the past few decades, food-borne illnesses have raised great concern about the safety of food. Considerable steps are taken by the food processor for understanding and managing the risks of airborne diseases. Among various systems, Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) is effective tool which focuses mainly on controlling hazards to ensure the production of safe and wholesome food. For maintaining the safety and increasing the shelf life of food, traditionally it has been preserved by thermal processing, freezing, salting and drying. But nowadays consumers are demanding convenient, innovative, fresh foods, including new "minimally processed" products. To meet consumers' expectations in the 21^st century, the food industries are implementing novel technologies whose purpose will be two fold: 1) to provide the new quality attributes demanded by consumers; and 2) to ensure the all important and often expected assurance of food safety. The novel technologies will include various minimally processed technologies like high pressure processing (HPP), pulsed electric field (PEF), ohmic heating, dielectric heating, microwave heating, ultrasound, modified atmosphere packaging (MAP) and cleanroom technology. Among these cleanroom technology have attracted great attention for maintaining the safety and quality of the food products as because it doesn't have any effect on the nutritional quality of the food being processed, it maintains the hygienic condition in the processing area, remove contaminants from the processing area and clean air in the processing area which in turn results in safe food product. The main objective of cleanroom technology is to eliminate airborne contaminants from the humans and/or from the environment. An air curtains and a positive air pressure is maintained in the processing unit using filtered air. Production personnel will use the special clothing which is preferred for cleanroom to reduce the contamination from both air- and human-borne microorganisms. In this chapter we will discuss about cleanroom technology, its historical background, its classification, layout of cleanroom, air handling, personnel and its clothing, regulations in cleanroom, and its application in food industries.

Introduction

In terms of individual health and physical condition, the situation in modern society is rather giving rise to concern. The last decades have seen a tremendous increase in availability and variety of food products which has undoubtedly affected the food habits of the average individual. Despite the fact that food has become overall safer and increased accessibility allows for healthier diets, worrying we are nevertheless faced nowadays with diet- related diseases of proper epidemic proportions. We now encounter an epidemic of obesity that spreads not only to the majority of the adult population but also, more worryingly, to young people who have rarely the option of alternative diets. Moreover, as scientific proofs for the link between diet and disease (particularly cardiovascular diseases and some cancers) accumulate, action is urgently needed. There are an increasing number of calls for action. It is within this situation that functional foods have developed. They assume a highly targeted solution to the diet related diseases with effective reduction of risk and improved physical and mental well being. That represents a big step from the traditional food-for-nutrition but the scientific milieu is ready to take the chances. The emerging ‘functional food science’ is focusing research on the effects of functional foods on growth, development, metabolism, the cardiovascular system, intestinal physiology, and even on behavioural and psychological functions (FAIR, 2000, Vol. 1). In view of these facts, it should appear necessary to assess and evaluate the developments in food production in terms of their effect on the individual consumer and the society at large.

6.1 Introduction

The food industry produces large volumes of waste both solid and liquid, starting from the initial step of raw material to the final consumption of processed food. Apart from a loss of valuable biomass and nutrients, the generated waste poses increased disposal and potentially severe pollution problems. Meat and meat industry is no exception where slaughter houses, meat processors, wholesalers and rendering plant generates huge amount of waste [1, 2].

Meat and meat processing industry, is among the least profitable industries despite its immense size and large gross sales. Effective recovery and utilization of by-products and wastes is the lifeline of meat and poultry processing industry. Thus, it becomes imperative that an effort be made to reduce expenses by employing the use of new or modified processing methods and through in-plant treatment, where waste effluents and by-products could be recovered and often upgraded to useful products of higher value. Meat processing wastes have a potential for recycling raw materials or for conversion into useful products of higher value as by-product or even as raw material for other industries or for use as food or feed after biological treatment.

Nanotechnology has emerged as a transformative interdisciplinary field, enabling the design and manipulation of materials at the nanoscale with exceptional physical, chemical, and biological properties. Nanoparticles (NPs), the most fundamental components of nanotechnology, exhibit unique size-dependent characteristics such as high surface area-to-volume ratio, enhanced reactivity, and tunable functionalities that make them valuable in diverse applications including agriculture, medicine, and environmental management. This chapter provides a comprehensive overview of the classification, synthesis, and characterization of NPs. NPs are categorized based on origin, composition, dimensionality, and morphology, encompassing organic, inorganic, and composite forms. The synthesis of NPs follows two major approaches—top-down and bottom-up—employing physical, chemical, and biological methods. Conventional techniques such as ball milling, laser ablation, and chemical reduction are discussed alongside emerging green synthesis strategies that emphasize sustainability and biocompatibility. Characterization techniques including UV–Visible spectroscopy, DLS, SEM, TEM, FTIR, XRD, and AFM are highlighted for determining nanoparticle

The term nanotechnology, buzzword of present day science owes its origin from the Greek word ‘nano’ literally meaning dwarf. When it is expressed in terms of dimension one nanometer equals to one billionth of a meter (1nm = 10-9 m). A nanometer is a thousandth of a thousandth of a thousandth of a meter, about 60,000 times smaller than a human hair in diameter or the size of a virus, a typical sheet of paper is about 100,000 nm thick, a red blood cell is about 2,000 to 5,000 nm in size, and the diameter of DNA is in the range of 2.5 nm. Therefore, nanotechnology deals with matter that ranges from one-half the diameter of DNA up to 1/20 the size of a red blood cell. 

Coconut, arecanut and palmyrah, which hold significant cultural and historical importance in India, have been the primary focus of cultivation efforts. Cocoa, a relatively recent addition to India, serves as a companion crop to coconut and arecanut, contributing to the economic well-being of farmers nationwide. However, the current situation emphasizes the crucial role of value addition and product diversification in stabilizing prices. Despite the initial stages of value addition in India’s palm crops, recent innovations and established value chains have the potential to empower farmers as entrepreneurs, thereby augmenting their income. Moreover, the value-added products from these palms have enormous export potential. This chapter explores the advancements in value-added products and the diversification of coconut, arecanut, palmyrah, and cocoa, providing insights into opportunities for cottage or small-scale industries.

Introduction

The cold chain is a meticulously managed series of actions using specialized equipment to ensure products remain within a specific low-temperature range from production to consumption (ASHRAE, 2024; IIR, 2024). This unbroken sequence encompasses refrigerated production, storage, and distribution activities, safeguarding the safety and quality of perishable and thermo-sensitive goods like agricultural commodities (such as fresh produce, meat, dairy, seafood, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, flowers, wine, etc.), processed foods and pharmaceuticals (Aung and Chang, 2014; Awan, 2023). For climacteric fruits like bananas, custard apples, apples, pears, tomatoes, mangoes, and avocados, cold storage facilitates controlled ripening, extending the time between harvest and consumption. Cold chain management, integral to the overall supply chain, requires expertise in maintaining temperature, air quality, and adherence to regulatory standards. Any disruption in this process can lead to product spoilage and financial implications (FAO, 2019). The management of the cold chain system is crucial for preserving the freshness, taste, and nutritional value of fruits from harvest to consumption (Kader, 2003).

• Database
• Data Model
• Database Software
• DBMS Facility 
• Architecture for a DBMS
• Data Modeling
• Components of a Data Mode
• RDBMS (Relational Database Management System)
• Client/Server Model of Computing
• Entity Relationship Diagram (E-R diagram)
• Entity Relationship Diagram Notations - Front-end and Back-end
• Codd’s Rules
• SQL - Structured Query Language
• Data Definition Language (DDL)
• Data Manipulation Language (DML)
• DCL
• Data Control Language
• Transaction Control (TCL)

Physiological disorders are abnormalities in plants which are associated to non-pathogenic factors. A plant or its parts may show unusual growth, function or deformity. Such abnormalities are widely referred to as disorders. These may be incited by nutrients deficiency or excess, hormonal imbalance, abnormal growing conditions etc. Some commonly observed disorders have been dealt in here suitably.

3.1.Processes
                    
    Leaching                    
    Fragmentation/Comminution
    Catabolism                    
    Decomposition models
                
3.2. Patterns
                    
    Litter decomposition
    Root decomposition                    
    Limit values for decomposition            
    Decomposition pattern in ecosystems