eChapters

Leaf Spot

(Mycosphaerella fragariae teleomorph, Ramularia brunnea Peck anamorph)?

Disease Symptoms

• Older leaves usually show purple spots (3-6 mm in diameter) on the upper surface, sometimes with a slightly darker halo

Introduction

Currently, the agricultural industry is expanding exponentially. Improved economic growth and rapid population growth have spurred investor interest in the agricultural industry. The World Bank estimates it to be worth $3 trillion. With the urbanization and industrialization of the agricultural sector, the amount of waste generated has also increased, causing many environmental problems. About 5 million metric tons of biomass are produced annually from agriculture. These agricultural wastes become breeding grounds for pathogenic microorganisms if not properly treated and recycled, it is noteworthy that this agricultural waste can be used as substrates for the synthesis of valuable product or as raw material for renewable energy production.

Objective

To determine the pH of a soil sample, which provides insight into the soil’s acidity or alkalinity, influencing nutrient availability, microbial activity, and plant growth.

Materials Required

• Soil sample

• Distilled water

• pH meter or pH paper

• Beakers (100 mL)

• Measuring cylinder (50 mL)

• Stirring rod

• Filter paper and funnel (if needed) • Mortar and pestle (for soil grinding, if necessary)

J    :    Joule.

J    :    Joining segment.

J chain      :    A polypeptide present in polymeric IgM and IgA that links the subunits together.
    
J gene segments, joining gene segments     :    The J gene segments, or joining gene segments, are found some distance 5' to the C genes in immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor loci. A V and in the case of IgH chains, tcrâ chains and tcrä chains, a D gene segment must also rearrange to a J gene segment to form a complete V-region exon.

Management of Compound Fracture

An open fracture is an injury that occurs when a broken bone is exposed through the skin. This may mean that the bone is actually sticking out of the skin, or it may mean that the skin and soft-tissue is disrupted and exposes a path to the site of the fracture. Often called a compound fracture, an open fracture necessitates different treatment from the usual closed fracture.

Surgically Cleaning the Bone

Surgically cleaning the bone is one of the first steps for treating an open fracture. Most patients who sustain an open fracture undergo a surgery called “irrigation and debridement.” Irrigation means washing the bone and the site of the injury. Debridement is described in the next step.

Determining the extent of injury can be difficult just by looking at an open fracture. This is especially true in high-energy injuries including automobile collisions and gunshot wounds. With these types of injuries, even small penetrations in the skin can cover very large areas of soft-tissue damage around an open fracture. Therefore, when surgically cleaning the bone, it is important to do this in the operating room (OR) under anesthesia — trying to sufficiently assess and clean the bone in the emergency room, without adequate anesthesia, may be insufficient.

Botany

Cauliflower is highly cross pollinated crop due to self incompatibility. Flower is protogynous in nature. Stigma remains receptive 5 days before and 4 days after opening of the flower. The time taken from pollination to fertilization is 248 hours depending upon the temperature. The optimum temperature for fertilization and seed development is 12°C – 18°C. Bees are the major pollinators.

Method of seed production: There are two methods of seed production

1. in situ method (seed to seed method)
2. Transplanting method (Head to seed method)

For seed production, seed to seed method is recommended since the head to seed method in India has not been very successful. In seed to seed method (In situ method) the crop is allowed to over winter and produce seed in the original position, where they are first planted in the seedling stage.

1. Botanical name : Elaeocarpus serratus

2. Family : Elaeocarpaceae

3. Common Name : Ceylon olive and Wild olive

4. Name in Indian languages: Veralu (Sinhala) and Karai or Ulankarai (Tamil).

5. Description

Elaeocarpus serratus, also called, Ceylon olive is a tropical fruit . The tree is a medium size tree with leaves similar to avocado. The tree usually measures from 8 to 15 metres in height. The fruits are almost similar to the large green olives. This is a sun loving tree grows on Loam soil and requires low maintenance. The delicate, lacy, white flowers usually attract a myriad of insect pollinators, notably flies, wasps and flower beetles.

Abiotic stress: Unfavourable situation created by non-living factors to the growth and development of plants. Factors include water, temperature, soluble salts, heavy metals, etc.

Abscissic acid (ABA): A plant hormone belongs to isoprenoid compounds. It is also known as stress hormone since it has relevance in stress tolerance in plants. Some of the physiological effects of ABA are closing of stomata, synthesis of osmolytes and seed dormancy.

Abscission layer: Distinct layer of cells with weakened cell walls in abscission zone.

Abscission zone: A region near the base of petiole of leaf which contain abscission layer.

The Walkley-Black method is a widely used chemical procedure to estimate soil organic carbon (SOC). It involves the oxidation of organic carbon by potassium dichromate in the presence of sulfuric acid, followed by titration to determine the amount of unreacted dichromate. Here is a detailed step-by-step guide:

Materials Required

• Soil sample (air-dried and sieved through a 2 mm sieve)

• Potassium dichromate solution (1 N)

• Concentrated sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 )

• Ferrous ammonium sulfate solution (0.5 N)

• Orthophosphoric acid (H3 PO4 ) (optional)

• Diphenylamine indicator or N-phenylanthranilic acid (indicator)

• Distilled water

• Burette, pipette, and conical flasks

• Heating mantle or hot plate

The oesophageal groove (also known as the reticular groove) is a physiological structure and reflex in ruminants that plays a crucial role in the digestion of milk and liquids, particularly in young animals. Its significance and the timing of its closure vary across different species of animals, reflecting adaptations to their feeding behaviors, nutritional needs, and developmental stages.
Anatomy and function of the oesophageal groove
The oesophageal groove is a muscular fold located in the reticulum, the first compartment of the ruminant stomach. When activated, it forms a channel that directs ingested liquids (e.g., milk in young animals) directly to the omasum and abomasum, bypassing the rumen. This mechanism prevents milk from fermenting in the rumen, ensuring efficient digestion and nutrient absorption. The closure of the groove is triggered by specific stimuli, such as suckling, milk temperature, and sensory cues like the smell or taste of milk.
Species-specific significance and closure time
The significance and closure time of the oesophageal groove differ among species, influenced by their physiological needs and feeding practices.
1. Cattle (Bos taurus)
Significance: In calves, the oesophageal groove is critical for survival during the milk-feeding stage. By directing milk to the abomasum (the true stomach), it avoids fermentation in the rumen, which can lead to bloating and metabolic disturbances.
Closure time: The reflex is most active in calves and begins to diminish as they transition to a diet of solid feed, usually around 8–12 weeks of age. In adult cattle, the reflex is rarely triggered, although specific
stimuli (e.g., salty solutions) can induce it.

The cell number of a particular cell type in a total cell population might indicate the physiological or pathological status of the cell smear/FNAC/tissue. ImageJ is a powerful open- source software extensively used for image assessment, including cell counting. In this chapter, the steps to count cells using ImageJ has been discussed. There are two ways to count the cells in a research image using ImageJ.
A. Manual Counting
Use the “Cell Counter” plugin or simply use the multipoint tool in ImageJ. Open it, select the cell type you want to count, and click on each cell in the image to tally them. Double-click on the multipoint tool. A separate window will open named point tool. One can select the type of marking, color and size of making (Figure 30). Keep clicking on the cell type to be counted. It will record the number of cells counted. If one wants to count the second cell type in the same image, change the counter number and select the size, color and type of click point.

Isolation of fungal pathogens

a. From leaves

•Choose leaves with young lesions.

•The lesions along with some healthy portion are cut in small pieces.

•The leaf portion is surface sterilized with 0.1% HgCl₂ for 10-15 seconds and washed with sterilized water 4-6 times.

•After washing, infected leaf pieces are placed on PDA plates with a sterilized forcep.

•After two days of incubation at optimum temperature, bits of mycelium from the margins of leaf pieces are transferred to fresh PDA slants.

•In certain cases the leaves are incubated in moist chamber and growth

•from infected portion is transferred directly to culture media.

Advantages of Using Pesticides

Pest are an ecological problem and therefore our control strategy must be ecologically sound. Modern agriculture is a combination of both and human intervention is necessary, whether it be pulling out weeds by hand, use of pesticides or genetic engineering. Control methods evolve over time as knowledge and techniques improve. This includes the development of chemical means of control which become very important because of a number of advantages

Pest are an ecological problem and therefore our control strategy must be ecologically sound. Modern agriculture is a combination of both and human intervention is necessary, whether it be pulling out weeds by hand, use of pesticides or genetic engineering. Control methods evolve over time as knowledge and techniques improve. This includes the development of chemical means of control which become very important because of a number of advantages

Sulphur (S) occurs in different forms in soil viz., sulphites, sulphates , sulphides and in organic compounds. Plants absorb S in the form of sulphate(SO₄ ^2-) . The organic forms of S compounds become assimilable, especially following microbiological transformation into SO₄ ^2-. The mineralization of organic sulphur in a soil depends primarily upon the N:S ratio and any SO₄ ^2- formed may be fixed against extraction, particularly if much Fe and Ba is present or if soil is very acidic.

Principle

Beside some amount in the soil solution, available sulphur in mineral soils occurs mainly as adsorbed SO₄ ^2- ions. Both CaCl₂ and phosphate solutions (as monocalcium phosphate) are generally used for replacement of the adsorbed SO₄ ^2- ions. Use of Ca salts have a distinct advantage over those of Na or Na, as Ca prevents deflocculating in heavy textured soils and leads to easy filtration. SO₄ ^2- in the extract can be estimated turbid metrically using a spectrophotometer. Sulphur in the extract can also be measured by colorimetric method using barium chromate but the turbimertic method given below is mainly used in the soil testing laboratories.

Chlorophyll content serves as a vital indicator of plant health and photosynthetic efficiency, with higher levels reflecting robust photosynthesis and overall plant vigor, while lower levels may signal nutrient deficiencies, diseases, or environmental stresses. Assessing chlorophyll content helps evaluate plant productivity, as chlorophyll is essential for absorbing light and converting solar energy into chemical energy. Additionally, the chlorophyll-a to chlorophyll-b ratio provides insights into how plants adapt to various light conditions, revealing their light absorption efficiency and ability to cope with environmental changes. Measuring chlorophyll on a fresh weight, dry weight, and leaf area basis allows researchers and agronomists to gauge the effectiveness of agricultural practices such as fertilization, irrigation, and crop management strategies. It also aids in monitoring the impact of stress factors like drought, salinity, pollution, or pest attacks, which is crucial for developing strategies to enhance crop resilience.

Reagents: 80% acetone: - 80 ml acetone + 20 ml water = 100 ml

Procedure for Chlorophyll Extraction from Leaves

1. Sample Collection: Collect fresh, healthy leaves from the plant to be analyzed. Ensure that the leaves are free from dust, pests, and diseases.

2. Preparation of Leaf Samples: Rinse the leaves thoroughly with distilled water to remove any surface contaminants. Pat them dry with a clean paper towel. Weigh an exact amount (usually around 0.1-0.5 grams) of fresh leaf tissue using an analytical balance. Record the fresh weight accurately.

Hog-plum also known as wild mango (Spondias pinnata), is native to tropical Asia. A small, aromatic deciduous tree, up to 27m height and 2.5m in girth, with a clear bole of 16m, is found wild or cultivated almost throughout India, ascending up to an altitude of 1500m in the Himalayas; also found in the Andamans. Bark thick, aromatic, smooth, grey; leaves imparipinnate, 20-60cm long, leaflets 5-11, 22-28cm long, ovate-oblong, elliptic or elliptic-oblong, more or less oblique with mango-like smell; flowers whitish or greenish white, polygamous, in large, terminal panicles; fruits in terminal clusters of 10-15, drupes yellow-green or rich olive-green, mottled with yellow and black, smooth, ovoid, 4-7cm long; seeds 1-3, one being perfect, oblong-elliptic. Fruit is extremely sour, even when completely ripe.

There are broadly five categories of crop protection products

Insecticides: Insecticides provide protection to the crops from the insects by either killing them or by preventing their attack. They can be further classified based on their mode of action:

1. Botanical Name : Feronia elephantum Correa syn. Limonia acidissima

2. Family : Rutaceae

3. Common Name : Elephant apple, Wood apple, monkey fruit, curd fruit

4. Name in Indian languages

Kathabel, Kainth (Hindi), Kapittha (Bengali), Kotha (Gujarati), Kavat (Marathi), Belda hanuu (Kannada), Velam, Velan, Vila, Vilanga (Tamil), Vilarmaram (Malayalam), Velaga (Telugu).

The crop growing environment, both soil/media and aerial are controlled in green house. Therefore, the movement of water (liquid and vapour) and minerals (nutrient ions) follow a different pattern altogether. This factor should be considered while preparing the fertigation program. This becomes all the more different if soil-less rooting media is used.

Table 7.1: Differences in Nutrient uptake in open field and Protected (GH) conditions.

Perianal gland tumors originate around the anus of the dog, upper and lower part of the tail and prepucial area. Retention of gonadal hormone receptors is one of the causes for perianal gland adenoma and adenocarcinoma.Cytology reveals the presence of hepatoid cells with centrally placed nuclei and prominent nucleoli. A small flattened reserve cells or resting cells are also noticed around the hepatoid cells. In malignant variety, the cells containing large vesicular nuclei, eosinophilic granular cytoplasm and binucleated cells, mitotic figures, reserve cells, moderate stroma and lymphoplasmacytic infiltration are seen (Figure 55 & 56).