eChapters

India has a mega animal bio-diversity, which is manifested in the form of availability of a large number of species, and a variety of breeds even within species. India is bestowed with rich and varied domestic animal biodiversity having a total of 32 breeds of cattle and 10 buffalo breeds. The diversity of livestock is not only accidental, nor purely natural; it is more the outcome of thousands of years of continuous selection. The trends in livestock population over the last three decades have shown that, there is significant increase in the population of buffaloes i.e. from 60.5 crore in 1973 to 96.9 crore in 2003, while cattle population has increased from 180.1 crore to 226.1 crore in the same period. The share of buffaloes, in the bovine population increased from 22 to 32 per cent while that of cattle has shown declining trend. Within the cattle, there has been marked shift from work animals towards milch animals which has resulted in loss of important draught breeds of cattle. Further indiscriminate crossbreeding has resulted in significant decline in number of important milch breeds like Sahiwal.

Amputation of Claw in Cattle

When unwanted organism settle on objects, substances or pure culture is called contamination.

Infection

Invasion of the body of a man or an animal or a plant by disease producing organism. Infectious disease is a condition brought about by an infection of the body by an organisms which is responsible for the disease. Organism that are capable of bringing about infectious diseases are called pathogens while those organism without this capacity are said to be non pathogenic.

Commensals

Organisms on skin and mucous membrane which multiply without causing damage to the tissue.

Subclinical infection / latent infection

When organism enters the tissue and lead to immunity without the appearance of any definite clinical symptoms.

1. Botanical Name : Flacourtia indica

2. Family : Flacourtiaceae

3. Common Name : Governor’s plum

4. Name in Indian languages: Bilangra (Hindi), Benchi (Bengali), Mulanninchil (Tamil), Athruna (Marathi), Karimulli (Malyalam), shruvavrikksha (Sanskrit), Nakka-neredu (Telugu).

5. Description

This is a bushy shrub or tree with a spiny trunk and branches. It may grow upto 10 metero. The drooping branches bear oval leaves. Governor’s plum is a common in tropical dry deciduous and thorn forests, though more abundant in the former. It also occurs in seasonally dry forest, woodland, bushland, thickets, wooded grassland, and often in riparian vegetation. The species is drought resistant though somewhat frost tender.

FRUIT TOFFEES

Fruit toffees can be prepared from different fruits like apricot, plum, apple and other fruits. Concentrate the fruit pulp to about half of its volume by cooking with sugar and other ingredients. Milk powder should be added in the form of paste. Heavy stirring is required till it hardens enough on cooling.

Uncertainty is an inevitable character of any system where most of the contradictory factors are either unpredictable or unfathomable. The higher is the complexity, the lesser would be the resilience. Agricultural production system, as it is managed in Indian condition, is the most vulnerable one to a plethora of uncertainties. Mostly managed in an open air rained conditions, it has been exposed to weather and resource uncertainties comprising of market volatility, poor access to technology and a fragile input delivery mechanism. The present study examines and depicts the possible issues and reasons for uncertainty.

The current systems of journal rating and evaluation have long been criticized for their emphasis on narrow metrics, such as the journal impact factor (JIF), which often fail to reflect the broader contributions of academic work. Despite their widespread use, these systems frequently reinforce inequities within academia, marginalize underrepresented voices, and fail to prioritize the societal impacts of research (Fig. 13.1).
This chapter consolidates recommendations for reforming journal rating systems, emphasizing fairness, inclusivity, and societal impact. Drawing on existing literature and expert recommendations, we outline a comprehensive framework for designing a rating system that balances academic rigor with accessibility and relevance.
13.1. Revising Evaluation Metrics
The reliance on metrics such as JIF has perpetuated a cycle of prioritizing high-citation fields and well resourced institutions. Garfield (2006), the founder of the JIF, himself noted that it was never intended to serve as the singular measure of research quality, yet its dominance in academia persists. Critics argue that the JIF favors fields with inherently higher citation rates, sidelining disciplines such as the humanities, social sciences, and regional studies (Moher et al., 2018). Moreover, the JIF incentivizes salacious or sensational findings that attract citations, often at the expense of methodological rigor (Brembs et al., 2013). To address these issues, scholars have proposed alternative evaluation metrics that prioritize broader dimensions of impact. For example, the Leiden Manifesto (Hicks et al., 2015) outlines ten principles for responsible research evaluation,

Introduction

Diseases are a common occurrence on plants, often having a significant economic impact on yield and quality, thus managing diseases is an essential component of production for most crops. These fungicides are used because of three main reasons:

a.To control a disease during the establishment and development of a crop.

b.To increase productivity of a crop and to reduce blemishes.

c.To improve the storage life and quality of harvested plants and produce.

Application Methods

To protect the crop from fungal pathogens, fungicides are applied in various formulations (as dust, granules, gas and most commonly, liquid). They are applied to:

1.Seed treatment

2.Soil treatment

3.Protection of standing crop

Faulty estrus detection is the most important problem in reproductive management.  There are two requirements for good estrus detection: a skilled observer must spend sufficient time to make observations and cows must show overt signs of estrus during the period of observation.  There are various ways to detect the estrus signs in cows and buffaloes as detailed below.

1.    Palpation of reproductive organs:  Routine rectal examination of all cows between 30-40 days after calving and individual cow that has not been inseminated within two months after calving should be encouraged.   This is to confirm that the reproductive tract is normal and to predict when the next estrus will occur or to identify cows for prostaglandin treatment when estrous cycles are occurring, but estrus has not been detected. 

2.     Teaser bulls:  Teaser bulls are useful in identifying estrus in large number of animals especially buffalo cows.   Teaser bulls can be prepared by vasectomy or by applying apron to a bull. 

3.     Heat detector animals:  Sexually active animals like bulls, cystic cows, hormone treated steer, cows and heifers can be used to identify estrus cows.    They may be fitted with halters containing ink- filled reservoirs and ball paint pen type devices (chin ball markers) that will mark animals that mounted or they can be used without these devices to increase the sexually activity and make visual detection programs more effective.

Tank mixing two or more pesticides saves time and labor and reduces equipment and application costs. In some cases, however, it can alter the effectiveness of one or more of the products. Two or more pesticides are considered compatible when they can be mixed and applied in combination without adversely affecting the effectiveness or the physical and chemical properties of the mixture, or causing undesirable damage to the application site. When problems develop from mixing two or more products together, the chemicals are considered incompatible.

Incompatibility

Incompatibility is a condition that prevents pesticides from mixing together properly to form a uniform solution or suspension. The formation of flakes, crystals, or oily clumps, or severe separation is unacceptable. Such incompatible mixtures clog application equipment and limit even distribution of the active ingredient in the spray tank. This prevents good pesticide coverage. The cause of incompatibility may be the chemical nature of the materials you are mixing. Impurities in the spray tank or water also may affect compatibility. Even the order in which you mix pesticides in the spray tank is important. Sometimes the types of formulations being mixed influence compatibility. Pesticide formulations of the same type are rarely incompatible with one another because they usually contain many of the same inert ingredients and solvents. Incompatibility can be a matter of timing or placement of the pesticides. Chemical or physical incompatibility may occur between the pesticides.

ABSTRACT

The coastal ecosystem happens to be one of the most productive ecosystems. This ecosystem has been under different kinds of threats such as climate change and consequent rise in sea level, increase in population and depletion of natural resources. All this has given rise to an increase in the level of abiotic stresses such as salinity, alkalinity, and drought affecting the agricultural productivity in the coastal region. Salinization is posing an increasing problem in coastal and agricultural areas reducing plant productivity and yield. Salinity is one of the major abiotic stresses decreasing the plant productivity.

Salinity is a significant factor limiting agricultural productivity and affecting about 9x 10⁸ hectares worldwide. Poor quality of water for irrigation and current unsustainable irrigation practices has significantly resulted in salinization and other forms of soil damage. About one third of all irrigated land is affected by salt due to secondary salinization. It is estimated that 50% of all arable land will be salinized by the year 2050. The problem of secondary salinization is also becoming more serious as it represents loss of highly productive lands. Added to this is the problem of coastal salinity where intrusion of seawater into arable land due to erosion of coastal habitat has rendered it unsuitable for cultivation. Salt-affected soils (~11 million ha in South and Southeast Asia) are found along coastlines or in inland areas where evaporation is greater than precipitation.

Estimation of plant available phosphorus content in soil has been attempted using several extractants. However, Bray’s reagent and Olsen’s reagent are the two common extractants used in India. Bray’s reagent (0.03 N NH₄F and N HCl) is used for acid soils, where, the fluoride ion complexes with Fe and Al in soil and thus releases the bound P. The Olsen’s reagent (0.5 M NaHCO₃) is used for neutral-alkaline soils.

Botrytis Gray Mould

Diagnostic Symptoms

• Appearance of a gray, fuzzy mold on flowers, leaves or stems of or plants. Also called, “gray mold”.

Volumetric Analysis Precautions

1. Use Clean Glassware: Ensure all glassware, such as burettes, pipettes, and volumetric flasks, is thoroughly cleaned and rinsed with distilled water to avoid contamination and ensure accurate measurements.

2. Clean Glassware Properly: Before use, all glass apparatus should be thoroughly cleaned with a cleansing mixture of potassium dichromate (K2 Cr2 O7 ) and concentrated sulfuric acid (H2 SO4 ) to remove any residual contaminants. After cleaning, rinse the glassware thoroughly with distilled water to ensure no traces of the cleansing mixture remain.

3. Proper Calibration: Calibrate all measuring instruments, including burettes, pipettes, and balances, before use to maintain accuracy in measurements.

4. Avoid Parallax Error: When reading the meniscus level in a burette or volumetric flask, ensure the eye is at the same level as the meniscus to prevent parallax error.

5. Use Correct Indicators: Choose the appropriate indicator for the titration based on the type of reaction and the pH range of the endpoint to ensure precise determination of the endpoint.

28.1 Introduction
This Act established the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) to define science-based criteria for food products and control their production, storage, distribution, sale, and import, thereby guaranteeing the availability of safe and nutritious food for humans by aggregating food-related legislation. From the farm to the refrigerator, the FSSAI protects every step to ensure customers all throughout India get milk and milk products free of contamination. The FSSAI has instituted particular rules acknowledging the importance of milk in the Indian diet and the possible health hazards of adulteration or contamination. These criteria cover everything from the quality of dairy farm cleanliness procedures and calf nutrition to processing, packaging, and milk and product distribution. By establishing and following these guidelines, FSSAI not only safeguards the health of millions of people but also fosters consumer trust so that milk and its derivatives may be included into everyday meals.
28.2 The Food Safety and Standards Act
Confusion among consumers, traders, producers, and investors results from the several food laws and several authorities in charge of establishing and enforcing standards across several food industries. Different laws provide different standards by including thorough clauses on the admissibility and degrees of food additives, pollutants, colours, preservatives, and other relevant criteria. Many times rigid and out of line with scientific progress and modernism, these criteria also reflect The developing food processing sector is hampered by this diversity of legislation and the participation of several bodies, therefore hindering the efficient creation and execution of food standards.

Poisoned food technique

The principle involved is to poison the medium with fungi toxicants and then allow a test fungus to grow on such medium. The test may be performed both on solid and liquid medium.

Procedure

On solid medium

•Prepare potato dextrose agar medium.

•Add required amount of fungicide and thoroughly mixed.

•The medium is poured into sterilized Petri-plates.

•A culture of test fungus is grown on PDA for a certain period (generally seven days) at the optimum temperature for growth.

•Small disc (7 mm) of fungus culture is cut with sterile cork borer and each Petri plates are centrally inoculated aseptically containing the medium with desired fungicidal concentration.

•Suitable checks are kept where the culture discs are grown under the same conditions on PDA without fungicide.

•The fungal colony diameter is measured at every 24 hr.

Transfer of technology is closely associated with generation of technology and its use leading to development. Extension components contain stimulating inputs that would mobilize the practitioners to put recommendations into action. Sustainability in agriculture is very important component of present day agriculture and future aspirations. Keeping these aspects in view an attempt was made to enlist suggestions under extension approaches that would enhance sustainability in agriculture in the area under study. The suggestive extension measures to enhance sustainability in agriculture were studied under components of social structure, cooperation mechanism, evaluation technique and marketing network.

A system is a unit which possess a group of interacting components, operating together for a common purpose, capable of reacting as a whole to external stimuli. It is unaffected directly by its own outputs and has a specified boundary based on the inclusion of all significant feedbacks. For example, the human body is a system-it has a boundary (skin) enclosing a number of components (heart, lungs) that interact (the heart pumps blood to the lungs) for a common purpose (to maintain and operating the living body).

Ecosystem: Any collection of organisms that interact or have the potential to interact along with the physical environment in which they live form an ecological system or ecosystem. Ecosystems are not static entities but, they are dynamic systems with characteristic pattern of energy flow, nutrient cycling and structural change.

Agro ecosystem: Agro ecosystems are ecological systems modified by human beings to produce food, fibre or other agricultural products. Like the ecological systems, agro ecosystems are structurally and dynamically complex. But their complexity arises from the interaction between socio economic and ecological processes.

Crop system: An arrangement of crop population that transform solar energy, nutrients, water and other inputs into useful biomass that produce food, feed, fuel and fibre. Crop system comprise of soils, crop, weed, pathogen and insect subsystems. The crop can be of different species and variety, but they only constitute one crop system if they are managed as a single unit.

Cropping systems: It is defined as the order in which the crops are cultivated on a piece of land over a fixed period of time. Cropping system is the way in which different crops are grown. In the cropping systems, sometimes a number of crops are grown together or they are grown separately at shorter intervals in the same field.

Boron occurs as anion in soils and isrequired by plants in very small quantity. Water soluble B makes the estimate of its availability to plants. Total boron in soils varies from 20 to 200 mg kg^-1 and available (water soluble) boron in soils ranges from 0.03 to 12 mg kg^-1 respectively. The threshold value ranging from 0.1 to 0.5 mg kg^-1 (water soluble B) depends upon the soil type, crops, and other factors, below which the response to applied boron may be expected. Its availability is affected by soil pH as under:

EXPERIMENT

TECHNOLOGY FOR EXTRACTION OF KERNEL OIL FROM STONE FRUITS

Apricot, peach, plum, cherries, nectarines etc are the important stone fruits belonging to the family Rosaceae. These fruits are known to contain stones/pits i.e., apricot (6.0-11.5%), peach (7.5-11.5%), plum (4.5-7.0%) and these stones are reported to contain kernels (%) apricot (28.0-32.0%), peach (5.7-5.9%), plum (10.0-20.8%), almond (28.0-30.0%). These kernels can yield an oil yield of (42.5-45.5%), (38.5-41.5%), (39.2-40.6%) and (52.0-58.9%), respectively. Thus, these stone fruit kernels can be utilized for extraction of kernel oil by using the improved technology developed for extraction of oil. The developed technology consists of mechanical decortication of stones by the use of mechanical decorticator, kernel separation by using specific gravity separation technique, oil extraction by using table oil expeller and oil filtration through oil filter press followed by packing in PET bottles and PE pouches.

Mechanical decorticator: The mechanical decorticator is a type of roller crusher consisting of two rollers moving in inward opposite directions with the help of 3 HP motor and is provided with a hopper and feeder assembly. The clearance between two rollers is adjusted according to the respective size of stones.

Table oil expeller: Oil expeller is a 24 patti screw type oil expeller driven by 7HP motor, in which the kernels are fed into the moving hopper at pre-determined flow rate, which are pressed in between rollers (worm) and side walls of the expeller. The kernels are then, passed through the expeller 3-4 times until a thin slice of press cake is obtained.