eChapters

Q. 1 Toe-in and toe-out are related with
(A) Front axle of tractor     (B) Rear axle of tractor
(C) Tractor steering           (D) Transmission system

Q. 1 In agricultural tractors, the vibration level is in the range of .......... Hz.
(A) 0 – 2         (B) 2 - 8
(C) 8 – 20       (D) More than 20

Q. 1 A device which is used to store energy in hydraulic system is known as
(A) Motor             (B) Cylinder
(C) Accumulator  (D) Pump

4.1. Tractor

Self propelled power unit having wheels or tracks for operating agricultural implements and machines including trailers.

Tractor engine is used as a prime mover for active tools and stationary farm machinery through power-take off (pto) or belt pulley.

The Himalayan region is recognized amongst the 34 global biodiversity hotspots. The Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) comprises of five biogeographic provinces, covers approximately an area of 591 thousand km² and extends from Jammu and Kashmir in the north-west to the Arunachal Pradesh in the east. The IHR is a source of great diversity of food, fuel, fodder, timber, dye and medicinal plants. It comprises about 18% of India and is more than 2,800 km long and 220 to 300 km wide, with altitudinal range of 200–8,000 m. The IHR alone supports about 8,000 species of angiosperms, 44 species of gymnosperms, 600 species of pteridophytes, 1,737 species of bryophytes, 1,159 species of lichens and 6,900 species of fungi. The state Himachal Pradesh is divided into four conspicuous zones, namely Shivalik/lower montain zone, mid-hills/middle mountain zone, high hills/temperate zone and cold dry zone. Five rivers namely Satluj, Beas, Ravi, Yamuna and Chenab with a large number of their tributaries flow through the state. The flora of the state consists of about 180 families comprising about 1,038 genera and about 3,400 species. The region is facing greater and more difficult challenges than ever before in achieving balanced economic growth, alleviating poverty, and sustainably managing the renewable natural resources. People’s dependence on forest and related natural resources is historic, cultural, and inevitable as other viable alternatives for earning a living have been few. The consequence of this trend has been the commercialization of forest products, mainly non-timber forest products (NTFPs). The NTFPs are the major bioresources among various natural resources available and provide various ecosystems services to the mankind. Like other parts of the IHR, in Himachal Pradesh people earn their livelihood from the forests in many ways i.e., earning cash income; satisfying their needs for fuel, medicine, shelter, and supplementary food; using traditional agricultural inputs such as leaf litter, fodder, small tools, and water; and cultivating land inside the forest boundaries as forest encroachers. Their dependence on forest resources is both historic and cultural to the extant that it is an integral component of the forest ecosystem of the region. Although, large amounts of NTFPs are collected by different communities in the state, no comprehensive study on the amount collected, number of people engaged in collection and trading, and the marketing chain involved has been carried out to date. Therefore, the present study focuses on conservation and sustainable utilization and market potential of different tradable medicinal plants/(NTFPs) in Himachal Pradesh, north western Himalaya.

Floriculture is increasingly regarded as a viable diversification from traditional field crops due to increased per unit returns and increasing habit of “saying it with flowers” during all the occasions. All over the world, the floriculture sector is experiencing rapid changes. Opening up to the world market in the WTO regime paving way to free movement of floricultural products world wide, globalization and its effect on income generation have all contributed to increase in per capita consumption of flowers in most countries. Noticeable feature of global floriculture is the development and expansion of floriculture in non traditional areas. Netherlands, Italy, Germany, and Japan had strong tradition for growing and consumption of flowers. The concept of commercial floriculture was perpetuated across the world from those regions. Now production centers are developing in Latin America, Africa and also in Asia to meet the demand of consuming countries and also to expand domestic market, commensurate with improved economic conditions, These countries provide highly qualitative floricultural products with low cost price which is finding a favourable place in markets of Western Europe, America and Japan. Emergence of new production centers has made floriculture more competitive and this in turn is benefiting the ultimate consumers.

Trade in fruit and vegetable products has been among the most dynamic areas of national as well as international agricultural trade, stimulated by rising incomes and growing consumer interest in product variety, freshness, convenience, and year-round availability. Advances in production, postharvest handling, processing, and logistical technologies—along with increased levels of international investments have played a facilitating role.

4.1. Global Trade of Processed Fruits & Vegetables

4.1.1. Country Wise Trends of Export in Value-Added Fruits

Table 4.1 shows the processed fruits export of top 15 countries in the global market. The USA remained the largest exporter at global level with the exports valued at USD 15089573 thousand with a share of about 12 per cent. The Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR %) of the USA was noted 7.58 per cent. Spain is the second largest exporter of processed fruits and vegetables with the CAGR of 6.14 per cent and share of 8 per cent. Some other dominant exporting nations are namely, Mexico, Netherlands, China, and Chile, showing a CAGR nearly, 13 per cent, 11 per cent, 16 per cent and 9 per cent, respectively.

Cheese, butter, whole milk powder, and skimmed milk powder are a major part of the world’s dairy trade. The demand for worldwide dairy exports is highly concentrated. With a share of 12 per cent, New Zealand is the largest exporter of dairy products, followed by Germany, Netherlands, France and the US. Germany has been the world’s major dairy importer as well with a share of 10 per cent. Other large dairy product importers are China, Netherlands, France, Italy and Belgium.

Before 1999, India was a net importer of dairy products. The successful implementation of the ‘Operation Flood’ program and trade reforms caused the direction of India’s dairy trade to change marginally. India has been a net exporter of dairy products since 2000. Statistics show that India’s export share of dairy products over world dairy exports increased marginally from 0.1 per cent in 2001 to 0.5 per cent in 2019, while its import share of dairy products over world dairy imports increased marginally from 0.018 per cent in 2001 to 0.04 per cent in 2019. The Middle East, South Asia, South East Asia, and the USA are the major markets for India’s dairy products. Conversely, India is a favorable market for the European Union, New Zealand, Australia, UAE, and US dairy products.

Export and import- an overview

The major thrust of livestock development strategy in India has been on achieving self-sufficiency in livestock products through import substitution. Several initiatives were taken to develop the Indian livestock sector in the past and India emerged as the largest milk producer in the world and it is also one of the largest producers of other livestock commodities. However, the economic policy reforms and economic liberalization triggered in 1991 have widened market opportunities for the livestock sector. The global demand for livestock products is also on the rise. Such developments offer an opportunity for India to increase its livestock exports, especially for products like bovine meat, whose domestic demand is low. With improved domestic production and marketing efficiency, better access to expanding world market, India has the potential to become more competitive and may augment port of livestock products. The export and import details reveal that there has been a steady increase in the value of imports and exports of livestock and livestock products in India.

Major poultry products which are traded in world market are live poultry, edible poultry meat, cuts and offals excluding livers, eggs in shells, eggs not in shell, egg yolks, egg powder etc.

Abstract
Non-tariff barrier (NTBs), particularly Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) measures and Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), have increasingly shaped the contours of international trade. While originally instituted to safeguard human, animal, and plant health and ensure product standards, these regulatory mechanisms are often criticized for functioning as covert instruments of protectionism. This chapter undertakes a comprehensive analysis of the dual nature of SPS and TBT measures, acknowledging their public policy rationale while critically examining their role in distorting trade flows, increasing compliance burdens, and eroding competitiveness, especially for exporters in developing economies. It highlights the economic ramifications, operational challenges, and policy complexities inherent in their implementation. Drawing from global best practices and multilateral frameworks, the study advocates for targeted strategies such as regulatory harmonization, improved transparency, enhanced capacity-building and robust dispute resolution mechanisms. These approaches are essential not only to prevent the misuse of SPS and TBT provisions but also to facilitate equitable market access and support rules based international trading system. The chapter emphasizes that achieving this balance is critical for fostering inclusive economic growth, promoting global competitiveness, and strengthening cooperation among nations in an increasingly interconnected world.
Keywords: Non-Tariff Barriers (NTBs), Sanitary and Photosanitary Measures (SPS), Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT), Regulatory Harmonization and Disguised Protectionism

Introduction
A trademark is a recognizable sign, design, or expression which identifies products or services of a particular source from those of others. Trademarks play a crucial role in protecting brand identity and fostering consumer trust, acting as a legal safeguard against imitation and brand dilution. The concept of a trademark has evolved over centuries, adapting to changing business landscapes and globalization, thereby becoming a vital asset in business strategy.
Definition of Trademark
According to the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO), a trademark is a “sign capable of distinguishing the goods or services of one enterprise from those of other enterprises.” The purpose of a trademark is to help consumers identify and choose between products and services based on the reputation and goodwill of the brand.
Key Characteristics of a Trademark:
• Distinctiveness: A trademark must be unique and distinguishable from other marks.
• Non-descriptive: A trademark should not directly describe the goods or services it represents.
• Non-deceptive: The mark should not mislead consumers regarding the nature or origin of the product.
Trademarks include names, symbols, logos, sounds, colors, and even scents that can be associated with a product or service. For example, the Coca-Cola logo is trademarked for its distinct font and red-and-white color scheme, making it easily recognizable worldwide.

Introduction

Fruits and vegetables rank as the most consumed commodities among horticultural crops, whether eaten raw or processed into value-added products. However, the global increase in population and periodic disruptions in supply chains have heightened concerns over food waste. This waste originates post harvest at the farmer level and as leftovers from households, restaurants, and commercial establishments, with fruits and vegetable waste accounting for a substantial 42% of total food waste.

The composition of fruit and vegetable waste varies widely depending on plant species and tissues. Peels and seeds, for example, are rich in phytochemical compounds suitable for food flavourings and preservatives. Similarly, vegetable tissues containing carotenoids, vitamins, and fibres exhibit antioxidant and anti-diabetic properties, potentially mitigating human health issues. Therefore, efficiently utilizing these waste products in various applications not only offers environmental benefits but also addresses sustainability challenges effectively.

Of the total land area of the world, arid zones account for 18.8%. Throughout the arid zones, there is no dearth of problems, but rapidly increasing desertification (some call it land degradation) is a problem of worldwide dimension. Water is a scare commodity in arid zones. Much of rainfall is lost by evapo-transpiration and as a result, ground water recharged only by seepage through soil profile. However, it is a common phenomenon in arid zones of the worlds that ground water is frequently used at the rate that exceeds recharge. The situation in arid tropics of India, which is spread over an area of 31.7 million ha, is no more different.

Agriculture is the human enterprise that is most vulnerable to climate change. Tropical agriculture including agriculture in arid tropics, particularly subsistence agriculture is vulnerable, as farmers do not have adequate resources to adapt to climate change. Land-use options that increase livelihood security and reduce vulnerability to climate and environmental change are necessary. Rural folk in arid western Rajasthan, the principal hot arid region of the country have been practising arable cropping in association with these scattered trees on crop fields since time immemorial. This combined protective-productive system of integration of trees into farming system rooted in the principles of ecology, productivity, economics and sustainability, is generally referred as agroforestry. In fragile ecosystems of hot arid regions of India

ABSTRACT

Chamba and Kangra districts of Himachal Pradesh are abode to vast natural diversity. The people of the area had developed varied traditionl approaches to live with the nature so that natural resources can be protected for their sustained use. The present paper enumerates some of the ecofriendly life styles, agroforestry systems and water use practices being adopted by the farmers of the region.

Mathura, Uttar Pradesh Livestock plays a crucial role in agriculture and rural economies, affecting livelihoods, food security, public health, and economic development. The Gross Value Added (GVA)of livestock sector is about Rs. 11,14,249 crore at current prices during FY 2020-21 which is about 30.87%of Agricultural and Allied Sector GVA and 6.17%of Total GVA. At constant prices (2011-12), the GVA of livestock sector is about Rs. 6,17,117crore during FY2020-21with a positive growth of 6.13% over previous financial year (DAHD, 2022).Livestock contributed 16% to the income of small farm households that indicates importance of livestock sector as a whole. Despite the presence of limited land and water resources, India has the world’s largest livestock population accounting for over 35.94% of cattle, 20.45% of buffalo, 26.40% of goats and 12.17% of sheep of the world’s population. The goat population in the country was 148.88 million in 2019, increased by 10.1% over previous census BAHS, 2012 (DAHD, 2019).In India the goat sector contributes 8.4 percent to the Indian livestock GDP that is 1,16,400 crores through meat Rs64,000 crores, through milk 22000 crores, through skin Rs3345 crores, through manure Rs2535 crores, and others Rs4360 crores. India rank f irst in goat population and possessregistered37 goat breedsin different agro climatic zones.Goats (Capra hircus) are one of the oldest domesticated species and it provides meat (Chevon), milk, yoghurt, cheese and other by-products such as hair and skin. Goats rearing provide much needed livelihood support to the landless and weaker sections and also hold considerable potential for commercializationas well as provide job opportunities in rural India.