eChapters

Introduction 
Renewable and more eco-friendly sources of fuel must be a major concern of our nation for the betterment of our environment because a growing population requires more energy. Fossil fuels have played a significant role in driving the advancement of society, economy, and development. Fossil fuels are the most used sources for the fulfilment of energy requirements. The predominant source of energy on a global scale is fossil fuels, which account for 88% of total energy production (Li et al., 2019). These sources are finite and depleting sources and have a significant negative impact on the environment through the emission of greenhouse gases, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and particulate matter (Ritchie et al., 2023). These gases cause global warming by trapping heat, which causes climate change and its side effects, such as increased temperatures globally, more frequent and intense heat waves, and altered weather patterns (Solarin, 2020). In 2017, there was a 1.6% increase in CO2 emissions related to the combustion of fossil fuels, and this trend is anticipated to continue (Khoo et al., 2020). Fossil fuels, on the other hand, are non-renewable sources of energy that will deplete rapidly within fifty years (Chew et al., 2018). In an age marked by increasing environmental concerns and a growing urgency to combat climate change, the pursuit of sustainable and eco-friendly energy sources has never been more critical. Among the renewable energy options, biofuels have emerged as a prominent contender, holding the promise of reduced carbon emissions and a path toward a greener, more sustainable future (Takeuchi et al., 2002). Biofuels, derived from organic materials like trees algae, and waste, have attracted a lot of attention because they have the potential to lessen our reliance on fossil fuels and reduce the negative effects of climate change. Figure 5.1 shows the classification of biological feedstocks utilized in biofuels comprising four distinct generations: first, second, third, and fourth (Alalwan et al., 2019). Edible biomasses like sugar beet, corn, wheat, rice corn, etc come under the category of first generation. Since these feedstocks are in competition with food harvests for a specific quantity of land, fertilisers, and water, the viability of first-generation biofuels is subject to discussion (Paschalidou et al., 2016). Subsequently, the resources and energy utilised in the cultivation of feedstocks are inefficiently utilised, resulting in costly production. Furthermore, there exists a discourse surrounding the potential contribution of biofuel to the mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGs). This is because certain biofuel varieties may generate negative net energy gains, thereby increasing greenhouse gas emissions throughout the production process. However, the most contentious topic continues to be the "food versus fuel" dilemma.

Bone differs from other tissues not only in physio-chemical structure, but also in its extraordinary capacity for growth, continuous internal remodelling and regeneration throughout post fetal life. Bone formation is a complex process regulated by diet, vitamins, hormones and growth factors. Growth factors are polypeptides that increase cell replication and have important effects on differentiated cell function. Growth factors are initially considered as systemic agents, but current evidence indicates that they act primarily as local regulators of cell growth. The transforming growth factor-β family of proteins, which comprises polypeptide growth factors that have diverse effects on the growth, differentiation, and function of cells, is receiving considerable attention for potential clinical applications and is likely of physiological and orthopedically significance.

Transforming growth factors

It is one of the most important growth-promoting osteo-inductive substances, which have been identified at the site of fractures and other places. Transforming growth factors (TGFs) have been categorized into TGF-β (alpha) and TGF-β (beta). TGF-α has not been isolated from bone tissue and cannot be considered a local regulator of bone remodelling, although it is mitogenic for bone cells and stimulates bone resorption. TGF-α shared amino acid sequence, receptor-binding and functional activity with epidermal growth factors but had only weak transforming growth factors activity. Furthermore, TGF-β by itself is completely ineffective, but together with TGF-α, it potently induced growth of colonies of cell-line.

4.1 Indian Rural Women Embracing the Changes

Rural areas are chiefly characterized by a strong reliance on primary industries such as agriculture, forestry, fishing, and mining (MacTavish, 2020). When examined by occupation, the agricultural sector frequently acts as the foundation of rural economies, employing a sizable percentage of workers in farming, livestock raising, and crop production (Cagliarini & Rush, 2011). Unlike urban areas, rural regions offer fewer non-agricultural employment opportunities, leading to a greater emphasis on self-employment, small-scale enterprises, and seasonal work patterns. Limited access to formal employment prompts reliance on informal sectors such as casual labour and subsistence farming.

Introduction
In the contemporary digital era, Information Technology (IT) has emerged as a pivotal tool in transforming business and governance processes, enabling greater efficiency, transparency, and innovation. The process transformation facilitate by IT is not merely a technical upgrade but a fundamental rethinking of how organizations operate, deliver services, and interact with stakeholders. This transformation affects every facet of an organization, from internal workflows to customer engagement, and extends to how governments interact with citizens. Integrating IT into processes fosters greater flexibility, scalability, and adaptability, allowing organisations to respond swiftly to changing environments and demands.

INTRODUCTION

Livestock is an integral part of agriculture in our country. In the decade, India’s population has grown drastically by 13% to 1.2 billion people. Meeting the nutritional needs of this swiftly growing is a gargantuan challenge. Researchers and young farmers have an important role to play in the India Government strategy to relieve pressure on food resources. The dairy industry is a large and important sector in India. We are the highest milk producers in world and milk is an integral source of nutrition and household income. But per animal production is very low as compared to developed countries. The challenge is to improve production and reproduction of dairy animals. Indian farmers feed their animals with imbalanced ration. Supplementation of mineral and vitamins in feed not only improves health status but also in turn increase the income of dairy farmers. The economic contribution of dairy sector seems to be quite substantial in the agricultural economy as well as in the national economy. Keeping in view the growing importance of dairy sector in the changing national and global economic scenario, the dairy farming vocational training programs are organized in the Extension Center of LUVAS at Jind. To undertake this work, 856 young dairy farmers of the area who have successfully completed dairy farming vocational training programmes during the year 2010 to 2013 were selected for the collection of data.

Introduction

The transgenic approach can be an effective alternative for the development of biofortified crops when there is limited genetic variation for the targeted nutrient content among the germplasm (Zhu et al. 2007). Transgenic approaches have been used for the simultaneous integration of genes involved in the enhancement of micronutrient concentration as well as reduction in the concentration of antinutrients, resulting in enhancing the bioavailability of nutrients in plants. Development of biofortified crops employing the transgenic approaches, involves a significant amount of time, effort, and resources during the development stage, but it is a cost-effective and sustainable approach in a long run (Garg et al., 2018). For its wide consumption, rice has been targeted to address the global challenge of malnutrition. Vitamin deficiency can be considered as one of the significant challenges that affect poor section of populations due to low affordability. Development of ‘Golden Rice’ with provitamin A (beta-carotene) was recognized as an important breakthrough in this direction by expressing genes encoding PSY and carotene desaturase (Datta et al. 2003). Folic acid (vitamin B9) is important during pregnancy and reducing anemia. Rice was genetically modified to increase folate content (up to 150-fold) by overexpressing genes encoding Arabidopsis GTP-cyclohydrolase I (GTPCHI) and aminodeoxy-chorismate synthase (ADCS) (Blancquaert et al. 2015). Rice has also been targeted to address the global challenge of iron deficiency anemia. Multiple reports indicated an enhance in iron content by overexpressing a number of genes (Lee et al. 2009). Similarly, zinc content was also raised in rice by overexpressing OsIRT1 and mugineic acid biosynthesis genes from barley (HvNAS1, HvNAS1, HvNAAT-A, HvNAAT-B, IDS3) (Lee and An 2009, Masuda et al. 2008).

The term transgenic animal refers to an animal in which there has been a deliberate modification of the genome - the material responsible for inherited characteristics - in contrast to spontaneous mutation (FELASA September 1992, revised February 1995). Foreign DNA is introduced into the animal, using recombinant DNA technology, and then must be transmitted through the germ line so that every cell, including germ cells, of the animal contain the same modified genetic material.  By simple means a transgenic animal is an animal in which foreign DNA has been incorporated into its original DNA. Transgenic animals are altered so that their DNA produces chemicals that normally they would not produce.

Vegetables play an important role in human nutrition and health making them important in Indian agricultural economy. The productivity of vegetable crop is seriously affected by several biotic and abiotic stresses and makes the economic conditions of the Indian marginal farmers worst. Under Indian conditions, 25-40% of the total vegetable produce is going waste due to lack of post-harvest storage and processing facilities in the country. Conventional plant breeding methods have improved vegetable crop plants bringing together a wide array of genes responsible for novel productivity and quality traits. However, sometimes, genes needed for crop improvement are not available in the existing germplasm. In genetic engineering, individual genes affecting the traits of economic importance are introduced in commercial cultivars. It is a targeted approach to improve the crop plants, which attempts to avoid the transfer of large blocks of genetic material. It requires identification and cloning of desirable gene and its subsequent transfer in plant species for improvement. Transgenic technologies offer many scientific advantages in breeding for improved vegetable crop quality and performance. However, very few genetically engineered horticultural crops have been released to farmers. As of 2005, one thousand million acres of transgenic crops have been planted globally covering 40% of the United States land area out of which 75% of the area is devoted to cotton, 50% to corn and 85% to soybeans in the United States of America (ISAAA, 2006).

27.1 Introduction

Crop improvement depends on genetic variation present in nature or created by hybridization followed by segregation and recombination. Again, gene transfers are possible only from the lines and species that are sexually compatible with the concerned species. Interspecific gene transfers pose many problems, including the loss of F₁ hybrids during embryo development due to abortion of the endosperm in the developing hybrid seeds. Embryo rescue technique was developed to rescue such interspecific hybrid embryos, and it has been widely used for this purpose. It is to be mentioned that embryo rescue can be used only in such cases where sexual hybridization is successful in producing zygotes that begin to develop into embryos.

Besides, the technique of somatic hybridization by protoplast fusion was developed to enable gene transfer from the species that do not produce zygotes on hybridization. This method has been extensively used and some useful lines have been derived. But this method is limited to utilization of genes present in plant species. Again, the results of somatic hybridization are unpredictable since many somatic hybrids fail to regenerate complete plants and the transfer of specific genes or groups of genes depends entirely on chance.

The recombinant DNA technology (also called genetic engineering) has permitted the transfer of genes from any organism into any organism. Besides, chemically synthesized genes can be transferred and integrated into genomes of various organisms to enable the expression of these genes. A gene transferred into an organism by genetic engineering is called a transgene. 

Ethylene is a primary plant hormone involved in the senescence of plant tissues including flowers and leaves. In carnation, inhibition of the synthesis or action of ethylene delays the onset of senescence symptoms and lengthens the vase life of flowers. Leaves of cut chrysanthemum of some cultivars frequently become yellow, sometimes prior to onset of flower senescence, in response to exogenous ethylene. Generation of transgenic plants with suppressed production or action of ethylene is an excellent way to lengthen the longevity of these ornamental plants. This paper reviews our studies on generation and characterization of carnations with reduced ethylene production and chrysanthemum with reduced sensitivity to ethylene.

Ethylene is a primary plant hormone involved in the senescence of cut flowers of many ornamentals such as carnation, sweetpea and delphinium. It is produced on a large amount at a later stage of flower senescence. The increased ethylene production accelerates withering and dropping of petals. Inhibition of synthesis or action of ethylene delays the onset of senescence symptoms and extends the vase life of flowers.

Ethylene is a primary plant hormone involved in the senescence of plant tissues including flowers and leaves. In carnation flowers, inhibition of the synthesis or action of ethylene delays the onset of senescence symptoms and lengthens the vase life of flowers. Leaves of cut chrysanthemum of some cultivars frequently become yellow, sometimes prior to the onset of flower senescence, in response to exogenous ethylene. Generation of transgenic plants with suppressed production or action of ethylene is an excellent way to lengthen the longevity of these ornamental plants. This paper reviews our studies on generation and characterization of carnations with reduced ethylene production and chrysanthemum with reduced sensitivity to ethylene.

10.1 Public Concerns About GMOs
10.1.1 Introduction
Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs), particularly transgenic crops, represent one of the most transformative breakthroughs in modern biotechnology. Despite their promise to address global challenges such as food insecurity, pest infestations, and climate resilience, GMOs have also triggered significant public concern. These concerns, though varying across regions and socio-political contexts, typically revolve around human health, environmental safety, ethical considerations, corporate control, and regulatory transparency. Understanding these public apprehensions is crucial for biosafety policymaking and responsible biotechnology governance.
10.1.2 Human Health-Related Concerns
A. Allergenicity and Toxicity
One of the most widely voiced apprehensions is that transgenic foods might introduce new allergens or toxic compounds into the food chain. The insertion of foreign genes, particularly from non-food species (e.g., bacteria, viruses), raises the possibility that novel proteins could elicit allergic responses or metabolic imbalances in humans.
Example: The case of a transgenic soybean incorporating a Brazil nut gene was withdrawn from commercialization after tests indicated it could cause allergic reactions in individuals sensitive to tree nuts.

Summary

Genetic engineering can be used to introduce specific traits into plants. It may not replace conventional breeding but can add to the efficiency of crop improvement. It is possible due to the fact that plants are totipotent, enabling regeneration of a new plant from an isolated cell. Transformation of dicots is usually carried out using the bacterium, Agrobacterium tumefaciens. Genes are cloned into plant expression vectors that carry the 25-bp repeat sequences at the borders of the onc region, known as the left and right borders (LB and RB) and the virulence genes (vir) of the Ti plasmid.

3.1. GM or transgenic crop

Plant that has a novel combination of genetic material obtained through the use of modern biotechnology.

GM crop contains a gene(s) that has been artificially inserted instead of plant acquiring through pollination.

In 1994, Calgene’s delayed ripening tomato (Flavr-Savr) is first GM food crop.

Introduction
The raising of silkworms for the purpose of producing silk is known as sericulture; It entails the rearing of silkworms as well as the cultivation of host plants; the cultivation of mulberry plants is referred to as Moriculture. A silkworm goes through five instars and four moults before beginning to spin cocoons. It goes through a full metamorphosis and goes through four life stages: the egg, larva, pupa, and adult. The life cycle of a silkworm takes roughly 6-7 weeks to complete. Following the formation of the cocoon, it is reeled by various reeling machines to create raw silk, which is then woven into garments. Transgenes are any foreign genes that are genetically engineered into an organism from another organism. Transgenesis is the term used to describe the entire process of introducing a transgene into an organism. The organism in which the gene is inserted may experience changes to its genome. Unlike plants and bacteria, transgenic silkworms have the ability to produce recombinant proteins on a large scale because of their similarity in post translational modification and protein folding to that of mammalian cells. India has begun conducting multi-location trials using transgenic silkworms that exhibit potent antiviral activity against the BmNPV virus. For the first time, field trials involving any kind of insect or animal have the approval of RCGM. In India, grass disease is responsible for roughly half of crop losses. When compared to other hybrids that farmers use, the transgenic silkworm hybrids that are produced will also have better cocoon quality parameters. Researchers have successfully created transgenic silkworms that produce glowing proteins, collagen proteins, and spider silk. Green, red, and orange silks are spun by genetically modified silkworms that have been created in Japan. While the gene sequences for red and orange proteins were taken from Fungia concinna coral and Discosoma coral, respectively, the gene sequence for green fluorescent protein was obtained from jellyfish. Researchers have verified that these colors created by transgenic silkworms persisted for a few years. Additionally, scientists have worked to create smart bandages that can destroy bacteria and so reduce the spread of infection. The first institute to create transgenic silkworms that produce fluorescent silk for wedding gowns was NIAS in 2000. The institute also produced ultrafine silk and useful proteins like medicinal antibodies. The transgenic silkworms produced by Immuno Biological Laboratories are useful in the production of influenza vaccines.

The genetically engineered (GE) seeds developed using recombinant DNA technology often referred to as transgenics or genetically modified organism (GMOs) provide an usually adaptable, scale neutral technology for the farmers. Even small farmers can benefit from such seeds provided the seeds are made available at reasonable cost. While growing such seeds the existing crop management practices are usually sufficient. The transgenics or GMOs are also defined as those organisms with a gene or gene construct of interest that has been introduced by molecular or recombinant DNA techniques. These exclude organisms produced by conventional breeding as well as organism produced by rearrangement of genetic materials by physical methods or by chemical means. Thus, GMO’s carry trangene(s) which when integrated and expressed stably and properly, confer either a new trait to the organism which was hitherto not present (such as insect resistance), or enhance an already existing trait such as nutritional quality (Prasana 2001).

Plant breeding or crop plant improvement is one of the oldest accomplishments of man. It began when he domesticated plants by growing them under controlled conditions and selecting those types that suited to his food requirements, about 10,000 years ago. As settlements improved, men could find time to innovate agricultural practices and to have better selections. Thus, domestication of plants and animals marked one of the most important phases in man’s progress from a nomadic and highly individualistic life to the organized and cooperative society. All our food crops as we know them now are the direct results of this primitive agriculture. This early phase of plant breeding was haphazard and slow based on selection of desirable types from the availability variability and it largely remained an art and not a science until Mendel’s laws were rediscovered in 1900 and applied to plant breeding at the beginning of 19^th century. 

Introduction

A vision of the industrial landscape of the future that emphasises safeguarding society and the environment has lately surfaced as the “Industry 5.0” idea. People collaborating with robotics and intelligent machines are referred to as “Industry 5.0.” By utilising cutting-edge technologies like big data, Internet of Things (IoT) and robots can help people operate more efficiently and quickly. The Industry 4.0 pillars of efficiency and automation are given a more human touch through this. It aims to combine the inventiveness and problem solving abilities of human employees with the powers of mechanisation and artificial intelligence, ultimately producing a more productive and adaptable production environment. This paradigm shift emphasises the value of human decision-making and intervention in the industrial context while addressing the drawbacks of complete automation. By fusing the strengths of both robots and humans, Industry 5.0, which is still in its early stages, has the potential to revolutionise several industries. In 1987, the United Nations Commission defined sustainability as addressing the requirements of the present without compromising the capacity of people in the future to address their issues. Sustainability is essential in Industry 5.0, the next stage of industrial development characterised by growing digitization and automation. Within this paradigm, sustainable practices reduce resource consumption, trash, and emission levels, leading to more effective utilisation of resources like materials and energy. Industry 5.0’s commitment to sustainability reduces waste, carbon dioxide emissions, and environmental impacts. Utilising green technologies and eco-friendly practices helps reduce environmental impact

The Genetic Basis for Protein Synthesis

Archibald Garrod proposed that some genes code for the production of a single enzyme

Beadle and Tatum’s experiments with Neurospora led them to propose the one gene-one enzyme hypothesis

During translation, the genetic code within mRNA is used to make a polypeptide with a specific amino acid sequence

Exceptions to the genetic code are known to occur, which include the incorporation of selenocysteine and pyrrolysine into polypeptides

Synthetic RNA helped to decipher the genetic code

The use of RNA copolymers and the triplet binding assay also helped to crack the genetic code

A polypeptide chain has directionality from its amino terminal to its carboxyl terminal end

The amino acid sequences of polypeptides determine the structure and function of proteins

Cellular proteins are primarily responsible for the characteristics of living cells and an organism’s traits

In transcription, it has become clear as to how there is the transfer of genetic information stored in the sequence of nucleotides-pairs in DNA to the sequence of nucleotides in m-RNA molecules which carry that particular information from the nucleus to the sites of protein synthesis (ribosomes) in the cytoplasm. Further, there is the requirement of the process by which genetic information stored in the sequences of nucleotides in m-RNAs is used to specify the sequences of amino acids in the polypeptide gene products. This process known as translation takes place in the cytoplasm on complex workbenches called as ribosomes. With exception of water, proteins are by far the most prevalent component of living organisms in terms of total mass.

Proteins (= enzymes = genes) are composed of polypeptides and every polypeptide is encoded by a gene. Each polypeptide has a long sequence of amino acids linked together by covalent bonds. There are 20 different amino acids (glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, proline, phenylalanine, methionine, tryptophan, cysteine, serine, threonine, tyrosine, asparagine, glutamine, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, lysine, arginine, and histidine) present in most proteins. All amino acids except proline contain a free amino group (NH₂) and a free carboxyl group (COOH) as illustrated below: