eChapters

Rendering is the process of transforming deceased animals or condemned meat into valuable products, such as carcass meal. Traditionally, rendering specifically referred to the extraction of fat from animal materials through heating. However, the term has evolved to encompass the production of carcass meal, meat meal, and technical fat. While the traditional method of rendering involved boiling animal remnants to extract fat, contemporary rendering includes the heating or steaming of carcasses to produce a nearly sterilized material that retains nutrients. The animal by-products utilized in rendering consist of excess fat, hooves, and offal. In the past, tallow was employed in the manufacture of soap and candles, while other by-products like heads and hooves were repurposed for fertilizers. Meat packers quickly recognized the potential for profit in processing these by-products. Today, the rendering industry generates a variety of valuable products, including both edible and inedible oils, chemicals, meat meals, and bone meals, derived from materials such as viscera, bones, trimmings, dead stock, and feathers. A substantial portion of these by-products is recycled into useful products. In developed nations, as well as in India, integrated abattoirs and meat processing facilities manage such waste utilizing advanced equipment and sophisticated processes. Pre-rendering operations: It is essential to process raw materials from the slaughter floor swiftly and comprehensively to guarantee the highest quality of the final product. Prior to placing these materials into the cooker, they require adequate preparation. Heads, feet, condemned carcasses, and bones from the boning department are initially reduced or crushed into smaller fragments using shredders. Additionally, bones can be further reduced in size with machines referred to as “pre-breakers.” Intestines and other soft tissues, which may be
contaminated with feed or manure, must be opened, cleaned, and reduced in size before being incorporated into the cookers during the inedible rendering process.

Aim

To know the immobilization technique for fractured metatarsus.

The fractured metatarsus comes under lower level fracture whose immobilisation is cast as well as conjoined U-Plate application. (Fig. 1).

Requirements

Thick padded cloth (Fig. 2(a)

Padded netted bamboo splint (Fig. 2(b)

Conjoined U plate (Fig. 2(c)

Answer the followings.
    Q.1.    Which factors govern the efficacy of intramammary drug in mastitis therapy?
    Ans.    The important factors are spectrum of bacteria controlled, diffusibility through mammary tissue and cost of the drug.

    Q.2.    What should be line of emergency treatment when type of infection is not known?
    Ans.    Frequent removal of milk manually or by using oxytocin, broad spectrum antimicrobials parentrally as well as via intramammary route and non steroidal anti-inflammatory drug.

    Q.3.    Why therapy of mastitis often fails to respond in lactating cows in spite of intensive veterinary service?
    Ans.    The main reasons are as follows:
    a)    Ineffective drug diffusion
    b)    Inactivation of antibiotics by milk and tissue priteins
    c)    Formation of micro-abscesses which make inaccessible of drug to pathogens
    d)    Inefficient killing of bacteria and intracellular survival of bacteria

Wastewater is defined as water that has been altered by certain substances, resulting in changes in its physical, chemical, or biological properties. These changes render it unfit for certain uses, such as the purpose of drinking. Since almost all of man’s daily activities are dependent on water, therefore ‘waste’ is discharged into the surroundings as a result of these actions. There are a number of substances that can be harmful to the environment and make people sick, including chemicals, detergents, household cleaners, dirt, microorganisms (germs), and body wastes. The water supply generates a great deal of wastewater, so it is essential that it is treated in order to reduce the amount of waste that it generates. Essentially, wastewater treatment ensures that a healthy environment is created and public health is protected by removing the majority of pollutants found in wastewater through the treatment process. Consequently, wastewater management plays an important role in protecting the planet, and public and economic health, as well as social, economic, and political stability.

11.1 Introduction

Generally, except particular cases, the typical civil wastewater do not present substantial differences according to the town where they are produced, therefore the type and the sequence of water treatment are nearly the same.

Conversely, the industrial wastewater characteristics are extremely varying according to the type of activity. For example, the oil industry wastewater will contain high concentrations of oily substances and hydrocarbons, the galvanic industry will produce heavy metal polluted wastewater, a food industry will produce wastewater containing biodegradable substances and so on. Consequently also the whole cycle of treatment, being aimed at the removal of particular pollutants, will be different according to kind of industry. The individual treatments of a wastewater treatment plant can be classified in different ways. According to the functioning principle it is possible to distinguish biological, physical and chemical treatments.

Biological plants are more commonly used to treat domestic or combined domestic and industrial wastewater from a municipality. They use basically the same processes that would occur naturally in the receiving water, but give them a place to happen under controlled conditions, so that the cleansing reactions are completed before the water is discharged into the environment.

Physico-chemical plants are more often used to treat industrial wastewaters directly, because they often contain pollutants which cannot be removed efficiently by microorganisms— although industries that deal with biodegradable materials, such as food processing, dairies, breweries, and even paper, plastics and petrochemicals, may use biological treatment. And biological plants generally use some physical and chemical processes, too.

ABSTRACT

Survey and research trial conducted for the selection of promising tree based farming system in Paonta valley region of H.P. have been summarized in the manuscript. Tree based farming innovations with intercropping, their planting technology and geometry around field/ farm, pure plantation , block plantation of trees grown with agricultural/fruit crops for better productivity per unit of land have been suggested for improving socio-economic condition of the regional farmers.

In addition to cultivated oilseeds, many other seeds and related plant products serve as sources of vegetable oils. They are obtained from large trees, shrubs or from different crops and their products. It may be the seeds or the husk, or the germ or other parts of the fruit or seed which are rich in oil. These are in general, referred to as non-conventional vegetable oil sources. They are highly important for the food/feed and non-food industries. Non- food and industrial uses are plenty.

But for the availability of these non- traditional oilseeds and their products, there would have been great pressure on the cultivated seeds. The products, mainly oil, help run our machines and protect them from getting rusted. Some of them protect our crops from pests and deseases. They even serve as beauty aids in the form of cosmetics. Some of them serve as sources of medicine for men and animals.

In recent years, some non-conventional/ non-edible oilseeds have become the raw material for biofuel/bioenergy. They have gained prominence, due to shortage of conventional oils. Seeds of more than 100 species occurring in the wild or cultivated are known to contain oil in considerable quantities. There is a vast scope for production and utilization of oil from these sources (Ambasta, 1986, Bhattacharya, 2002 and Vimal and Naphade, 1980).

In this chapter, the major non-conventional oilseeds of tree origin, by product oilseeds or other minor sources, are being dealt with. They are ricebran, corn, sal, mahua, jatropha, kokum, melia, rubber, mango kernel, kusum, simarouba, neem, karanj, crambe, moringa, tumba, jojoba and tobacco seed etc. Emphasis is given to the composition and quality of oil, cake and other plant parts. Their food, non-food and medicinal uses are presented. Oil extraction and related post harvest technological aspects are also discussed.

India is a huge importer of crude oil and spends about Rs. 1,200 billion of foreign exchange every year to meet 75% of its oil needs (Anand, 2006). This has affected its balance of payment adversely, especially after the unprecedented rise incrude oil prices. Being an agricultural country endowed with varied climates, nutrient-rich soil and ability to grow many different crops, India offers a great promise as a producer of surplus raw material for biodiesel and bioethanol production. India’s biofuel production currently accounts for only 1 percent of global production (Shinoj et al., 2012). Although all oils can be used, edible oils as a source for biodiesel production have to be ruled out because they are required for cooking and food purposes. Therefore, non-edible oils are the premier raw material for biodiesel production in India. Seeds rich in these oils are mostly produced by perennial species. Hence these trees are referred to as tree-borne oilseed species (TBOS) and they produce TBOs (Aurora and Kumar, 2015). TBOs are cultivated/grown in the country under different agro-climatic conditions in a scattered form in forest and non-forest areas as well as in waste land/deserts/hilly areas. The country has enormous potential of oilseeds of tree origin like mahua (Madhuca indica),neem (Azadirachta indica), simarouba (Simarouba glauca), karanja (Pongamia pinnata), ratanjyot (Jatropha curcas), jojoba (Simmondsia chinesis), cheura (Diploknema butyracea), kokum (Garcinia indica),wild apricot (Prunus armeniaca), wild walnut (Aleurites molucana), kusum (Schleichera oleosa), tung (Vernicia fordii), etc. The best characteristic is that it can be grown and established in the wasteland and have varied agro-climatic conditions. (Aurora and Kumar, 2015)

ABSTRACT

In agroforestry and forestry sectors, little efforts have been made for tree improvement research in India. Planting of genetically poor quality of seedlings/propagules is one of the major reasons of low level impact of agroforestry systems in Indian Agriculture. Most of the agroforestry tree species have not been even gone through simple selection for superior types (plus trees). Exploration, collection and conservation of germplasm of woody agroforestry species, selection for fast growing trees, clonal propagation, seed orchards and other advances in tree breeding are still in fancy stage. At present, all the woody agroforestry species are propagated through collected seeds and/or propagules by unskilled labourers. It is well known that through tree breeding and establishment of seed orchards of improved genotypes, significant achievements towards the improvement of productivity of economic tree products is possible as happened in agricultural crops in India and industrial trees in USA and Europe. Even by small efforts of tree improvement, productivity of economic tree products can be raised by 20-30 per cent. In this paper breeding methodology, limitations, status and strategy of various agroforestry species has been discussed in special reference to Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul), Prosopis cinereria (Khejri), Azadirachta indica (Neem), Populus spp., Dalbergia sissoo (Shisham), Acacia nilotica (Desi babul), Eucalyptus spp. Casuarina equisetifolia (Casuarina), Albizia lebbek (Desi siris) and Jatropha curcus (Ratanjot).

Agroforestry systems are not simply systems where trees and crops or animals give useful products to the farmers, rather systems where trees and crops and/ or animals interact. Interaction literally means influence or mutual or reciprocal action. So component interaction refers to the influence of one component of a system on the performance of other component as well as the system as a whole. In agroforestry systems, trees are grown in close proximity to crops and pasture. Their performance would largely depend on their ability to share various growth resources in a given environmental situation. Various interactions take place between the woody trees and herbaceous plants (crops or pastures) which is referred to as tree-crop interface. These interactions take place through the media of soil and microclimate and may exert favourable or adverse effects on the crop. Study of interaction helps to know how the components of agroforestry utilize and share the resources of the environment, and how the growth and development of any of the components will influence the others. Interaction occurs both above and below the ground and includes a complex set of interactions relating to radiation exchange, the water balance, nutrient budget and cycling, shelter and other microclimatic modifications.

Agroforestry systems are not simply systems where trees and crops or animals give useful products to the farmers, rather systems where trees and crops and/ or animals interact. Interaction literally means influence or mutual or reciprocal action. So, component interaction refers to the influence of one component of a system on the performance of other component as well as the system as a whole.

In agroforestry systems, trees are grown in close proximity to crops and pasture. Their performance would largely depend on their ability to share various growth resources in a given environmental situation. Various interactions take place between the woody trees and herbaceous plants (crops or pastures) which is referred to as tree-crop interface. These interactions take place through the media of soil and microclimate and may exert favourable or adverse effects on the crop. Study of interaction helps to know how the components of agroforestry utilize and share the resources of the environment, and how the growth and development of any of the components will influence the others. Interaction occurs both above and below the ground and includes a complex set of interactions relating to radiation exchange, the water balance, nutrient budget and cycling, shelter and other microclimatic modifications.

The success of an agroforestry system relies heavily on exploitation of the component interactions. In an ideal relationship, production of trees as well as crops or grasses in combination could be comparable to their sole performance. Agroforestry could be even more advantageous if the production of associated components is increased due to influence of trees. This is possible because trees are capable of improving productivity of soil in many ways. A large number of trees are known to fix nitrogen symbiotically. Nevertheless, instances of crop inhibition in association of trees are not uncommon. Such inhibitions are primarily caused by shade effect as well as competition for below-ground resources such as nutrients and water. In some cases, inhibitory effect may also result from allelochemicals secreted by some of the tree species.

Agroforestry systems are not simply systems where trees and crops or animals give useful products to the farmers, rather systems where trees and crops and/or animals interact. Interaction literally means influence or mutual or reciprocal action. So component interaction refers to the influence of one component of a system on the performance of other component as well as the system as a whole.

In agroforestry systems, trees are grown in close proximity to crops and pasture. Their performance would largely depend on their ability to share various growth resources in a given environmental situation. Various interactions take place between the woody trees and herbaceous plants (crops or pastures) which is referred to as tree-crop interface. These interactions take place through the media of soil and microclimate and may exert favourable or adverse effects on the crop. Study of interaction helps to know how the components of agroforestry utilize and share the resources of the environment, and how the growth and development of any of the components will influence the others. Interaction occurs both above and below the ground and includes a complex set of interactions relating to radiation exchange, the water balance, nutrient budget and cycling, shelter and other microclimatic modifications.

The success of an agroforestry system relies heavily on exploitation of the component interactions. In an ideal relationship, production of trees as well as crops or grasses in combination could be comparable to their sole performance. Agroforestry could be even more advantageous if the production of associated components is increased due to influence of trees. This is possible because trees are capable of improving productivity of soil in many ways. A large number of trees are known to fix nitrogen symbiotically. Nevertheless, instances of crop inhibition in association of trees are not uncommon. Such inhibitions are primarily caused by shade effect as well as competition for below-ground resources such as nutrients and water. In some cases inhibitory effect may also result from allelochemicals secreted by some of the tree species.

Agroforestry systems are not simply systems where trees and crops or animals give useful products to the farmers, rather systems where trees and crops and/ or animals interact. Interaction literally means influence or mutual or reciprocal action. So, component interaction refers to the influence of one component of a system on the performance of other component as well as the system as a whole.

In agroforestry systems, trees are grown in close proximity to crops and pasture. Their performance would largely depend on their ability to share various growth resources in a given environmental situation. Various interactions take place between the woody trees and herbaceous plants (crops or pastures) which is referred to as tree-crop interface. These interactions take place through the media of soil and microclimate and may exert favourable or adverse effects on the crop. Study of interaction helps to know how the components of agroforestry utilize and share the resources of the environment, and how the growth and development of any of the components will influence the others. Interaction occurs both above and below the ground and includes a complex set of interactions relating to radiation exchange, the water balance, nutrient budget and cycling, shelter and other microclimatic modifications.

INTRODUCTION

Promoting agroforestry is a major opportunity to deal with problems related to land-use and CO2-induced global warming (Albrecht and Kandji 2003). As per recent projections, the area of the world under agroforestry will increase substantially in the near future. Undoubtedly, this will have a great impact on the flux and long-term storage of carbon in the terrestrial biosphere (Dixon 1995). Several studies have shown that inclusion of trees in the agricultural landscapes often improves the productivity of systems while providing opportunities to create carbon sinks (Winjum et al. 1992; Dixon et al. 1993; Krankina and Dixon 1994; Dixon 1995). The amount of carbon sequestered largely depends on the structure and function of agroforestry systems - which to a great extent, are determined by environmental and socio-economic factors. Other factors influencing carbon storage in agroforestry systems include tree species and management system. The significance of agroforestry with regards to carbon sequestration and other CO2 mitigating effects is being widely recognized. There are sound reasons to believe that agroforestry can contribute significantly to carbon sequestration. It is important that research attention is focused on this aspect of agroforestry systems (Nair and Nair 2002).

This chapter introduces tree improvement approaches aimed at developing forest species with enhanced resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. It examines the challenges posed by climate change and discusses conventional and modern tree breeding techniques. The chapter further explores climate-smart tree improvement, resistance to pests and diseases, and tolerance to environmental stresses such as drought, heat, salinity, and other changing climatic conditions. By integrating breeding strategies with modern technologies and climate-resilience objectives, the chapter emphasizes the development of improved forest trees capable of maintaining growth, productivity, survival, and ecosystem functions under changing environmental conditions.

1. Tree improvement consists of_____________ and_____________. (Silviculture and tree breading)
2. Variation within the local progenies is due to_____________. (Environment)
3. Larger units of similar vegetation are referred as_____________. (Biome)
4. _____________ is the only gaseous hormone. (Ethylene)
5. More genetic gain can be achieved in the_____________ seed orchard. (Clonal)
6. _____________ is known as father of genetics. (Mendel)
7. Pure line theory was proposed by_____________. (Johannsen)
8. Self-incompatibility hampers the development of_____________. (Inbreds)
9. Progeny having both parent identities is known as_____________. (Fullsib)

Tree leaves serve as a traditional source of roughage for livestock such as sheep, goats, cattle, and buffaloes. During the initial growth phases, these leaves exhibit a relatively high crude protein percentage alongside lower fiber content. However, as the tree matures, there is a notable decline in protein levels and a corresponding increase in crude fiber content. Generally, tree leaves are abundant in Ca, often containing two to three times the amount found in cultivated fodder, but they are deficient in phosphorus, leading to an imbalanced Ca to P ratio. The presence of tannic acid further reduces the digestibility of the protein found in these leaves. The dry matter content of most tree leaves typically falls within the range of 30-40%, accompanied by a significant protein concentration. Although the crude fiber percentage in tree leaves is lower than that in grasses and hays, their digestibility remains poor due to the tannic acid content. Additionally, while the ether extract in tree leaves is relatively high, it is often less digestible compared to that found in cultivated fodder.
Leguminous trees and shrubs
Animals that graze on mature grass pastures frequently enhance their diet by consuming the leaves of trees and shrubs, many of which belong to the legume family. The term ‘browse’ refers to the food obtained in this manner; in addition to being consumed directly by animals, browse can also be harvested and transported to livestock kept in enclosures. The leaves of leguminous trees are notably rich in protein (200 300 g/kg DM) and minerals, although they also contain a significant amount of fiber (50 60% neutral-detergent fiber/DM). The presence of tannins and potentially other compounds can reduce the palatability of browse, suggesting that its nutritional value may serve as a reserve food source for times when grass is no longer accessible. A prominent example of a browse species is leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala), commonly referred to as ipil-ipil, which is an important tropical legume widely cultivated across various regions. It serves as a significant source of protein and minerals and is abundant in β-carotene. However, it also contains the toxic amino acid
mimosine. Other notable leguminous forages include Gliricidia (Gliricidia sepium), Sesbania (Sesbania sesban) and Acacia (Acacia angustissima).

1. A plant cell constitutes the_____________ per cent of water. (80-90%)
2. Photosynthesis is the process of conversion of_____________ energy into _____________ energy. (Radiant, Chemical)
3. Dark reaction of photosynthesis occurs in_____________ and light reaction occurs in _____________ region of chloroplast. (Matrix, Lamellae)
4. The connecting link between glycolysis and Kreb’s cycle is_____________. (Pyruvic acid)
5. _____________ is responsible for turgidity of plant cells. (Osmosis)
6. A diffusion of liquids through a semi-permeable membrane is known as_____________. (Osmosis)
7. The diffusion of solvent particles into a living cell is known as_____________. (Endo-osmosis)
8. The diffusion of solvent particles out of a living cell is known as_____________. (Exo-osmosis)
9. The outward pressure exerted by the cell solution on the cell wall which is developed due to osmotic diffusion of water is called as_____________. (Turgor pressure)