eChapters

Trees that provide materials for propagation are called mother trees. Selection of mother trees is important because the young trees will be expected to inherit the favourable characteristics from the mother tree, such as fast growth, upright or spreading shape of the tree crown, good flowering and fruiting, and tolerance of diseases or pests. There may be sexual propagation by seed or vegetative propagation by using other parts of the tree. The genetic make-up of the seeds differs due to recombination of the genes, resulting in seedling variation. Thus, all the seedlings may look like the mother tree in some respects, but no two seedlings are the same. In case of vegetative propagation through cutting, layering, grafting or budding, the genetic make-up of the young tree is exactly the same as that of the mother tree. Consequently, all new trees grown vegetatively from one mother tree have the same set of gene pairs and therefore the same characteristics; they form a so called clone. Differences between plants of a clone can only be caused by different growing conditions.

1. _____________ is a fertilize ovule consisting of intact embryo stored food and seed coat, which is viable and has got the capacity to germinate. (Seed)
2. The content of other than seeds such as straw, soil particles, small stones and seeds of other species is called_____________. (Inert material)
3. Initial seed obtained from the selected individual plants of a particular variety or parental line, used to produce breeder seed and forms the basis of the total seed production chain is_____________ seed. (Nucleus)
4. The loss of weight of a sample when it is dried due to decrease in_____________. (Moisture)
5. A specified quantity of seed, physically identifiable in respect of which an international analysis certificate may be issued is called_____________. (Seed lot)
6. The blowers are used for_____________. (Purity of seeds)
7. A type of seed that is not certified but the labelling is done to indicate the quality or standard in a truthful manner is called_____________ seed. (Truthfully labelled seed)
8. The reagent used for biochemical test for determining seed viability is_____________. (Tetrazolium chloride or Bromide)
9. The food material contained in_____________that nourishes the embryo during its development. (Endosperm)

Myristica fragrans Houtt., the nutmeg tree is unique among spice plants as the donor of two distinct spices; nutmeg and mace.Native of Indonesia (Moluccas islands), nutmeg tree grows there abundantly and is now naturalised in West Indies, Srilanka, India, Phillipines, Tropical America and Pacific Islands. (Varghese, 2000). In India, the plant is grown in certain pockets of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Goa, Maharashtra, North East India and Andamans (Krishnamoorthy, 2000). It is also grown in a small scale in Srilanka, Trinidad, China, Tobago, Zanzibar and Mauritius.

Tree tomato belongs to the family solanaceae, genus Cyphomandra and species betacea. The Cyphomandra genus is made up of about 30 species. Shaw (1996) has reported that Cyphomandra genus consists of 35 species confined to the New World tropics. They were earlier described under the genus Solanum. They can be separated from Solanum  by several characters, the most important being anther characters. In Cyphomandra in the anther the connective is thickened and expanded dorsally. As a result, it is clearly differentiated from the anther thecae, which is thin walled and papillose.

Economically important plant in this genus is Cyphomandra betacea. Other important related species are Cyphomandra casana (Casana), C. craccifolia (Mountain tomato) and C. fragrans (Guava tamarillo). It has got distant affinity with Lycopersicon esculentum (Tomato), Physalis ixocarpa (Tomatillo), P. peruviana (Cape gooseberry), Solanum muricatum (Pepino Dulce) and S. sessiliflorum (Cocona).

Genus : Cyphomendra 
Species : betacea  (Cav.)  Sendtner
Family : Solanaceae
Chromosome No. : 2n = 24

The tree tomato is a bushy fruit plant which in early time was planted in the gardens high upon the mountain slopes. Presently in India, Sri Lanka and number of other countries it is grown in the hilly region. Indians of Peru at very early stages gave the world a number of food plants of which potato is of great value, and tree tomato in the only woody species of family Solanaceae. The tree is fast growing and starts to bear in about two to three years times. The egg shaped and usually smooth-skinned fruits are produced in large number in hanging clusters. The sub acidic and succulent fruits are agreeable and eaten as raw. In central America it is called tomate and cultivated at an elevation of 4000 to 8000 feet. The crop loves rich loamy soil and grows best under irrigated conditions.

Synonyms

Menispermum fenestratum Gaertn., Coscinium peltatum Merr., C. wallichianum Miers, C. maingayi Pierre, C. usitatum Pierre, C. blumeanum Miers var. epeltatum Boerl., C.wightianum Miers, C.miosepalum Diels, C.fenestratum var. macrophyllum Yamamoto, C. fenestratum var. ovalifolium Yamamoto, Pereiria medica.

In India, vernacularly it is known as Haldigach (Bengali), Tree turmeric, False calumba, Columbo weed (English), Jhar-I-haldi (Hindi), Maradashina, Maramanjali (Kannada), Maramanjal, Manjavalli (Malayalam), Jhade-halade, Venivel (Marathi), Darvi, daruharidra, Pitadaru (Sanskrit), Venivel, Bangwellgetta (Sinhalese), Maramanjal, Manjalkodi, Atturam, Kadari, Udaravi, Pasamantram, Imalam (Tamil), Manu pasupu (Telugu).

Morphological characteristics

It is a huge dioecious tree that can reach a height of 10 metres and has yellow wood and sap. The slices of stem and root are stiff and woody. The colour of the wood is yellowish-brown on the outside and yellow on the inside. The substance is found in huge woody, cylindrical, straight sections with a diameter of up to 10 cm; branchlets are terete, brown tomentose, and subsequently glabrescent with disciform petiole-scars. Leaves simple, alternate, exstipulate, broadly ovate, rounded, truncate or shallowly cordate at base, acuminate at apex, 10-32x8-22 cm, glabrescent above, hoary yellowish-white tomentellous beneath, thinly coriaceous; main nerves 5-7, palmate, with 2 pairs of distal lateral nerves; midrib and other main nerves sunken, whitish tomentose beneath above basal margin on the lamina of leaf; stipules absent.

Natural farming integrates traditional wisdom with ecological sustainability by using on-farm resources, avoiding synthetic inputs, and enhancing biodiversity. Within this framework, tree-based and multi-tier farming systems play a pivotal role in optimizing land use and ensuring environmental balance. These models are especially beneficial for small and marginal farmers in India’s varied agroclimatic zones, offering resilience, productivity, and sustainability.
Tree-based farming incorporates fruit or timber trees—like mango or guava— intercropped with pulses, vegetables, and herbs. This mimics forest ecosystems where diverse species coexist, supporting one another. Trees improve soil quality through leaf litter, reduce erosion, and help conserve moisture. Their canopy creates favorable microclimates for understory crops.
Multi-tier systems structure crops by height: tall trees form the top layer, followed by medium-height plants such as papaya, bushy crops like chillies, and ground-level creepers such as pumpkin. This vertical arrangement maximizes sunlight use and space efficiency, improving overall yield per unit area.
These systems enhance soil fertility, promote nutrient recycling, and reduce crop vulnerability to pests and climate extremes. Practices like mulching, intercropping, and the use of Jeevamrit and Beejamrit are seamlessly integrated, reinforcing soil health and sustainability. Together, they offer a regenerative, income-diversifying strategy for natural farmers across India.

Introduction 
Tree-based biofuels, which are made from non-edible oilseeds of perennial trees, have emerged as a renewable energy source with considerable environmental and economic benefits. Unlike annual biofuel crops, tree-based biofuels have the potential for long-term yields, soil conservation benefits, and the ability to survive on marginal terrain (Dwivedi et al.,2011). Various tree species have been identified globally for their biofuel potential, with an emphasis on sustainability and low competition with food crops (Pandey et al., 2012). In India, there is a diverse range of over 100 tree species that produce seed oil suitable for biodiesel. These oil tree species can be cultivated on non-agricultural lands, ensuring that they do not compete with food and fodder production. Globally, tree-based biofuels are crucial for energy security. Palm, jatropha, pongamia, and mahua are among the feedstocks investigated by the US, Brazil, and Europe for biodiesel production. Tree-borne oilseeds (TBOs) are critical for biodiesel generation in India, which relies heavily on fossil fuel imports. India has implemented both the National Biofuel Policy (2009) and the National Agroforestry Policy (2014). The former policy aims to replace fossil fuels with biofuels, targeting a 5% replacement by 2012, 10% by 2017, and exceeding 10% beyond 2017. The latter policy focuses on integrated land use options for livelihood, environment, and energy security. Notably, important tree-borne oilseeds (TBOs) such as Jatropha, Karanj, Mahua, and Simarouba have been efficiently incorporated into agroforestry systems, yielding beneficial results and providing a significant source of non-edible oilseeds from trees. The need for alternatives to fossil fuels is particularly urgent for countries like India, which have a vibrant economy and high consumption of fossil fuels, heavily relying on imports. Biofuels, as renewable liquid fuels derived from biological sources, have proven to be promising substitutes for oil in the energy sector (Mahapatra et al.,2021). In India, the focus on biofuels is primarily on non-edible oils obtained from tree species’ seeds since oils from food crops like corn, sweet sorghum, and soybean cannot be diverted for biodiesel production (Raju et al., 2012). Tree-borne oilseeds (TBOs) are cultivated across the country in various agro-climatic conditions, including forest and non-forest areas, as well as wastelands, deserts, and hilly regions. India has a vast potential for oilseeds derived from trees, such as Mahua (Madhuca indica), Neem (Azadirachta indica),

Tree-borne vegetables spring out from woody perennial plants. There are too many trees in nature across the globe which offer edible fruits, a few of them are exploited for vegetable purpose. Of course, in popular parlance, vegetable gives the connotation of the product of herbaceous crop, but there are vegetables which are the product of woody perennials. In the present agri-horti-scenario, where diversity in product range is the most sought after aspect, attempts are underway to popularize culture of such vegetables which have not yet found commercial momentum at the grower’s field. Tree-borne vegetables are one such group which needs proper popularization to really help to percolate their farming. These vegetables being vested with woody nature, tap root system, bark covering and stress tolerance mechanism are worth exploitation under diverse farming systems prevalent across the country. Further many tree-borne vegetables are rich in nutrients also and as such add to their plus identity.

Agroforestry systems are not simply systems where trees and crops or animals give useful products to the farmers, rather systems where trees and crops and/or animals interact. Interaction literally means influence or mutual or reciprocal action. So component interaction refers to the influence of one component of a system on the performance of other component as well as the system as a whole.

In agroforestry systems, trees are grown in close proximity to crops and pasture. Their performance would largely depend on their ability to share various growth resources in a given environmental situation. Various interactions take place between the woody trees and herbaceous plants (crops or pastures) which is referred to as tree-crop interface. These interactions take place through the media of soil and microclimate and may exert favourable or adverse effects on the crop. Study of interaction helps to know how the components of agroforestry utilize and share the resources of the environment, and how the growth and development of any of the components will influence the others. Interaction occurs both above and below the ground and includes a complex set of interactions relating to radiation exchange, the water balance, nutrient budget and cycling, shelter and other microclimatic modifications.

The success of an agroforestry system relies heavily on exploitation of the component interactions. In an ideal relationship, production of trees as well as crops or grasses in combination could be comparable to their sole performance. Agroforestry could be even more advantageous if the production of associated components is increased due to influence of trees. This is possible because trees are capable of improving productivity of soil in many ways. A large number of trees are known to fix nitrogen symbiotically. Nevertheless, instances of crop inhibition in association of trees are not uncommon. Such inhibitions are primarily caused by shade effect as well as competition for belowground resources such as nutrients and water. In some cases inhibitory effect may also result from allelochemicals secreted by some of the tree species.

Bonsai first appeared in China over a thousand years ago on a very basic scale, known as pun-sai, where it was the practice of growing single specimen trees in pots. These early specimens displayed sparse foliage and rugged gnarled trunks which often looked like animals, dragons and birds.

With Japan’s adoption of many cultural trademarks of China, bonsai was also introduced to Japan during the Kamakura period (1185-1333) by means of Zen Buddhism, which at that time was rapidly spreading around Asia. Once bonsai was introduced into Japan, the art was refined to an extent not yet approached in China. Over time, bonsai, which was confined to the Buddhist monks and their monasteries, were introduced as a symbol of prestige and honour. It became an important part of Japanese life by being displayed on specially designed shelves.  For the Japanese, bonsai represents a fusion of strong ancient beliefs with the Eastern philosophies of the harmony between man, the soul and nature.

Renewable energy sources, are the sources of power that quickly replenish and which can be used again and again. For this reason they are sometimes called energy resources. The main sources of renewable energy and their advantages and disadvantages are :

Solar
Energy from sunlight is captured in solar panels and converted into electricity.  Potentially it is an infinite source of energy supply, but the solar panels are costly.

Vedic literature indicates that the energy in the universe gets transmitted into the human body through star galaxies. The star galaxies of our universe are divided into 27 parts each signified by a particular star (nakshatra). Every human being is assigned to a particular star by virtue of his birth time.  Each star is associated with a tree. The tree associated with his star gives the universal energy to the human being. Thus astrology gives us a chance to identify the tree which is auspicious to us, being associated with our birth star. When one plants the tree associated with his birth star near his dwelling, it will bring good luck and prosperity to him.

The early inhabitants of our country were very conscious of the placement of their dwellings in beautiful surroundings. The best examples are from the West Coast, where the houses were traditionally constructed in the midst of gardens. The Arab traveller and historian, Ibn Batuta, in his itinerary in coastal Malabar recorded their picturesque beauty, as early as in the 10th century AD. The whole compound was planted with trees, which were useful and aesthetic in appeal. The scholarly elite used trees and shrubs mentioned in Kalidasa’s work in their planting schemes. Through the tree and foliage, a path is formed to the main village.

Trees

A trees is a woody perennial plant with clear stem or trunk. Trees trend to be long leaved living up to several 100 year.

TREE- logical meaning of each letter

T - Temperature and micro-climate moderation.

R - Removal of air pollutant.

E- Erosion control.

E - Energy conservation.

Trees are amazing nature’s creations that are not only important for mankind but also sustain ecological balance in nature. They are the source of livelihood and provide valuable raw material for manufacture of household utility products. They are important from spiritual aspect and have been exhaustively described in ancient Indian texts with their significant Ayurvedic and other potential health benefits. Botanically a “tree.” is a large, long-lived (perennial) woody plant that attains a height of at least 6 m (20 ft) at maturity. A tree possess certain characteristic features such as a trunk (single main self-supporting stem) which gives off spreading branches, twigs and foliage to make a crown. Since the diameter at breast height (dbh) of trees is determined internationally at 1.35 m (4.5 ft) above the ground, a tree must be un-branched at least up to 1.5 m (5 ft) from the ground.

I. General information

1. Common names of trees

• Acacia nilotica – Black babool, Indian gum-Arabic tree
• Acacia auriculiformis – Golden shower
• Adansonia digitata – Baobab, Monkey bread
• Adenanthera pavonina – Red sandal wood, bead tree, red wood
• Ailanthus excelsa – tree of heaven, paradise tree
• Albizia julibrissin – Pink siris, silk tree

Definition: A tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem or trunk, supporting branches and leaves in most species.

Trees are not a taxonomic group but include a variety of plant species that have independently evolved a woody trunk and branches as a way to tower above other plants to compete for sunlight. Trees tend to be long lived, living up to several hundred years.

Urbanization coupled with industrial development creates problems of environment like air pollution, water pollution, noise pollution and civic ugliness. Of late, there is a greater awareness of environmental issues and increasing understanding of several attributes of vegetation. This led to an intensification of activity in the field of landscape horticulture to combat pollution and create an aesthetic environment for recreation and healthy living. Planning and execution of landscape projects for different urban locations should be done to meet both aesthetic and ecological requirements.