eChapters

Trenching and diversion structures are engineering methods employed to control water flow, especially in agricultural fields and construction sites. Trenching involves the creation of narrow and deep excavations, primarily used for laying utilities, drainage systems, or other underground infrastructure. These trenches, often deeper than they are wide, require careful design and adherence to safety protocols to prevent cave-ins and ensure worker safety.
Diversion structures, such as ditches, channels, or small dams, are designed to redirect the flow of water away from vulnerable areas. They help manage surface runoff, reduce erosion, and provide controlled irrigation. In construction settings, these systems protect worksites and foundations from water damage, while in agriculture, they optimize water usage and prevent soil degradation. Together, these techniques play a vital role in water management and land preservation.
PURPOSE AND UTILITY OF TRENCHES
Trenching serves a wide range of purposes in civil engineering and construction projects. It is commonly used for installing essential underground infrastructure such as water pipes, electrical cables, sewage systems, and telephone lines. In residential settings, trenching is frequently employed for tasks like laying irrigation systems, connecting plumbing lines, installing electrical cables, and placing pipes for heating systems.
At the municipal or city level, trenching plays a critical role in establishing and maintaining public utility networks. It enables the installation of extensive drainage systems, sewer pipelines, and city-wide electrical and communication lines. Proper trenching ensures the safe and efficient placement of these utilities while minimizing surface disruption and ensuring long-term functionality

Introduction

Time Series Analysis (TSA)

TSA is a crucial tool in the study of climate change, as it allows researchers to carefully examine patterns and changes in weather parameters over time. By analyzing time series data for temperature, precipitation, and other weather variables, scientists can identify trends and develop models that accurately describe the underlying structure of the series. These models can then be used to make predictions about future changes in weather patterns and the potential impacts of climate change on the environment and human society. The accurate forecasting of climate change using TSA can inform policy decisions and facilitate adaptation strategies to mitigate the effects of a changing climate.

Components of Time Series

When analyzing a time series, we often want to separate the different components that contribute to its overall behavior. The classical decomposition method is a widely used technique that breaks down a time series into four components: trend, seasonal, cyclical, and irregular.

Abstract

Climate variability/change is one of the very significant concerns discussed in the recent two decades. Its impact on air temperature and precipitation has received massive attention worldwide as they affect both the spatial and temporal patterns of water availability. Hence, it is becoming clearer that analysis of trends in air temperature and rainfall is significant in studying the impacts of climate variability/change for water resources planning and management. Therefore, the aim of the study was to detect theannual, seasonal and monthly trends in air temperature and rainfall in the Râmgangâ river basin. Daily air temperature (Bareilly and Moradabad) and rainfall data (Shahajahanpur, Bareilly, Bareilly BPO and Moradabad)of 40 years (1971 to 2010) were used for the study. Non-parametric Mann-Kendall test and theTheil-Sen’s Slope Estimator was used for determination of estimating the trend and magnitude of the trend. Findings revealed that the basin is experiencing a warming trend because of the rise in themaximum and minimum air temperature. In case of rainfall, Moradabad showna significant high positive trend during the monsoon season. This would alter the river run-off in long run if the existing trend continues to persist like this.

Keywords: Climate change/Variability, Mann-Kendall test, Theil-Sen’s Slope estimator, Water resource planning

Abstract
India’s agriculture sector plays a critical role in economic development, offering employment to a significant rural population and contributing notably to GDP. Despite limited natural resources, India is among the world’s top producers of various crops and livestock. However, post-harvest losses, infrastructure gaps, and limited value addition hamper its full export potential. In recent years, agricultural exports have surge, with rice, spices, sugar, buffalo meat, and marine products emerging as key contributor. India has also expanded its export footprints across major global markets, including the USA, China, Bangladesh, and the UAE. Recognizing the strategic importance of agri-exports for economic growth, employment generation, and rural development, the government has launched initiatives such as the Agriculture Export Policy (AEP), Agri Export Zones (AEZs), and Market Access Initiatives (MAI). These measures aim to boost market access, infrastructure, and competitiveness. The integration of e-NAM, focus on quality standards, branding through Geographical Indications (GI), and establishment of Agri-Cells in key countries further support India’s goal of becoming a global agriexport powerhouse. This work underscores the importance of a coherent export strategy to enhance farmer income, promote sustainable practices, and position India as a key player in the global agricultural value chain.
Keywords: Agri-Export Policy (AEP), Agricultural Export Trends, Market Access and Diversification, Value addition and Processing

Introduction

Production system under arid and semi-arid region faces several biophysical constraints (high solar radiation, low and erratic rainfall, high wind velocity, poor soil conditions, etc.). Availability of irrigation water and irrigation potential in these regions are meager. Nutrition, food security and sufficient livelihood options based on agriculture are the major challenges of the people living in these regions. Sustainable productivity in these regions cannot be achieved by monoculture of either seasonal or forage crops, and thus hinges the need for diversifying the cropping pattern through fruit based cropping system which has good potential particularly in the arid and semi-arid regions. Because hunger and malnutrition are often linked to poverty, providing economic opportunities through horticultural production not only helps family incomes, but also addresses food security and nutrition. Thus, cropping system approach for agricultural production has greater significance in these regions.

Introduction
India possesses wide range of climatic and physio-geographical conditions, which are favourable for the production of various kinds of horticultural crops such as fruits, vegetables, flowers, nuts, spices, plantation crops (coco nut, cashew nut and cocoa) etc. The production of fruits and vegetables (F&Vs) in India is 81.2 million tonnes and 162.2 million tonnes from an area of 6.9 million hectares and 9.2 million hectares respectively during 2012-13 (NHB, 2013).  India is the second largest producer of F&Vs in the world after China. India’s share in the world production of F&Vs is 11.84 per cent and 13.36 per cent respectively (Lagzi, 2013). The importance of horticultural sector can be gauged from the fact that the contribution of horticulture sector in agricultural gross domestic product (agri-GDP) stands at around 30 per cent (Economic Survey, 2013-14).

Abstract
India’s grape industry has emerged as a key contributor to horticultural exports, driven by increasing production, evolving market strategies, and trade liberalization. This chapter analyses the trends, growth, instability, and export potential of both fresh (HS 080610) and dried grapes (HS 080620) from India between 2004 and 2023. While, India ranks among the top global producers, the fresh grape segment has seen consistent growth in exports, supported by initiatives like APEDA’s GrapeNet traceability system and private-sector innovation through companies like Sahyadri Farms and Mahindra Agri. In contrast, the dried grape segment, despite high growth potential, has faced volatility and continues to show a trade deficit. Using compound growth rates (CGR) and the Cuddy-Della Valle Index (CDVI), the study evaluates performance across production, trade value, and instability metrics. Exports potential maps highlight untapped markets such as the United States, EU, and Southeast Asia. Strengthening post-harvest infrastructure, ensuring compliance with international quality standard, and investing in value addition remain critical for India to enhance its global competitiveness in grape exports.
Keyword: Fresh grapes, Dried grapes, Export Potential, GrapeNet, Growth and instability

India’s livestock sector is one of the largest in the world and dairy farming is the single largest contributor to country’s GDP, apart from being the biggest source of employment. India has 56.7 per cent of world’s buffaloes. Buffalo genetic resource greatly helps the countries to assess their strengths and potential to harness the nature’s gift and India is fortunate in terms of having largest buffalo population, huge buffalo germplasm diversity (13 recognized plus 14 distinct population groups) and the world renowned buffalo breeds: Murrah, Banni, Jaffrabadi and Nili-Ravi.

Introduction Consumer demands for convenience and mildly processed meals with long shelf lives have led to unique and current developments in food packaging solutions (Dobrucka and Cierpiszewski, 2014). Additionally, the development of unique and creative packaging solutions that do not compromise food safety or quality is being fueled by the current retail trend and changing lifestyles (Dainelli et al., 2008). The widespread use of packaged meals has raised consumer demand for prepared foods like microwaveable dinners, and the growing popularity of smaller food packages all help to fuel the food industry's explosive growth in creative packaging (Restuccia et al., 2010). The rise in food-borne microbial outbreaks, which calls for the usage of packaging that possesses antimicrobial qualities while retaining food quality, is another major driver of new food packaging (Appendini and Hotchtkiss, 2002). The initial advancements in packaging were electrically powered packing equipment, flexible packaging, metallic cans, aseptic packaging, aluminium foils, and flexographic printing. A considerable movement away from metal, paperboard, and glass packaging in favour of plastic and flexible packaging was also brought about by the discovery of various materials such as polyester, polypropylene, and ethylene vinyl alcohol polymers.

Introduction

The food processing industry is a sunrise sector and contributes around 14% of Gross Domestic Product, 13% of India’s exports and 6% of total industrial investment. The Indian food retail market is expected to reach Rs 61 lakh crore by 2020 and the food processing industry accounts for 32% of the country’s total food market. This is considered as one of the largest industries in India and is ranked fifth in terms of production, consumption, export and expected growth.

The drift towards urbanisation and busier way of life, pave path to tremendous bounce in the food market. Nowadays consumer’s approach to being fit is not about going to gym, but also consulting dietitians and adopting an adjusted eating routine. Consumer’s behaviour concerning food consumption has undergone significant changes as a result of the increased awareness about different value added food products, brands, and cuisines, and also their greater willingness to experiment and ability to pay. It leads to the concept of food security in to nutritional security. Companies are offering a wider range of products to the consumers as a result of their investments into product innovation, research and development. At present, various value added products with versatile colour, shape, ingredients etc are available in worldwide market. Among this, some food items like processed fruits and vegetables and dairy products have witnessed a momentous growth in export also. Recent surveys indicated that for companies manufacturing processed foods and beverages, rise in the obesity rate is a great challenge. Hence, efforts were made to develop commercially viable, new process protocols to design healthy products from underutilised food commodities.

Food Safety

The term “safe food” has different standards to different consumers rather than just being the food handled and prepared through proper cleaning, washing and cooking. Safe food means food prepared on clean and sanitized surfaces with equipment, utensils and dishes that also are cleaned and sanitized. Nowadays consumers are extra conscious about the safety and quality of food and for that reason food safety issues have changed, so have society’s methods for making food as safe as possible. Accordingly, “food safety” means assurance that food is acceptable for human consumption according to its intended use (FSSAI 2017).

Abstract

In afforestation and reforestation programs, seed has become a valuable commodity and its collection, identification, handling, processing, testing, storage and certification requires prudent planning. The research and development in seed science and technology have made significant progress in recent years. The quality of seed has been the subject of increasing interest among Forest Managers and the Scientists. Not every seed is suitable for sowing. Sometimes, the seeds do not develop into normal plants or the plants produced do not produce the expected harvest. This manuscript reviews, the progress made to-date in the forest tree seed germination and highlights future line of action.

Introduction

The term geographic information systems (GIS) has come to mean, variously, an industry, a product, a technology, and a science. As such, the term invokes different perceptions dependent on whether the viewpoint is that of the software developer, the system marketer, the data provider, the application specialist, or the academic researcher, among others. A newcomer to the field is likely to be bewildered by the multiple uses of the same term, or, seen alternatively, different definitions of the same term. For instance some find it distasteful to use of the conventional acronym GIS and prefer Geospatial Technology. With all the variety of perceptions predicting the future of GIS is a cumbersome business. The most certain inference we can gain from the available trends is, it is growing and is poised for further growth. Geotechnology along with Nanotechnology and Biotechnology is considered as of the three most promising growth industries for the near future.

Introduction

The protected cultivation aims to create a favorable environment for harnessing maximum potential even in adverse climatic conditions. Farmers in India are facing different challenges including small and fragmented land holdings, climate change, vagaries of weather, poor soil health and lack of knowledge and exposure to modern agricultural technologies. The protected cultivation farming is emerging as one of the better alternatives in agriculture and gaining foothold in India. However, for successful protected cultivation farming, one needs to understand the protected cultivation structures, climate control, production technologies, plant protection, water management, marketing, guidelines and policies. At present, various innovations are adopted under the greenhouse technology viz., Soil based cultivation and soil less cultivation. Soil less cultivation consist of solid media based and liquid media based. Solid media include coco-peat, vermiculite, perlite, rice husk, sawdust, mass grass, wheat - paddy straw, sand, gravels, rock wool etc. whereas liquid based media include hydroponic, aeroponic and aquaponics cultivation.

Previous Year Questions

1. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of Public Food Distribution system in India. (8M, IFoS-2022)

2. Describe the vicious cycle of poverty and enlist the existing policy instruments for combating malnutrition. (20M, CSE 2022)

3. Enlist and explain the efforts of the GOI in streamlining the current levels of poverty (10 marks, CS 2022)

4. Enlist and explain the salient features of Public Distribution System as per the provisions of the National Food Security Act, 2013. (10M, CSE 2022)

5. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of public food-grain distribution system in India. (8M, IFoS 2020)

1. Introduction

Intermediate moisture foods are semi moist foods that have some of their water bound by glycerol, sorbitol, salt or certain organic acids, thus preventing the growth of many microorganisms (Stewart et al. 2001). It is now well recognized that fruits and vegetables are dehydrated to an intermediate moisture level (20-50%) (Stewart et al. 2001; Purvi et al. 2003). As the intermediate moisture products are characterized by a semi moist consistency so these foods have enough moisture content to permit easy chewing but low enough water content to prevent spoilage production of intermediate moisture foods is based on an increased scientific understanding of the chemical reactions involved in traditional food preservation methods (Purvi et al. 2003).
There will be better retention of original flavor and texture compared to fully dried products, with concomitant reduction in bulk, weight and cost of packaging, transportation and storage. Such intermediate moisture foods are more appropriate for developing countries in view of their minimal processing requirements, stability under ambient conditions, safety, convenience, ease of nutrient content adjustment, energy savings and low capital investment. They are also eminently more suited than dehydrated or canned foods for military rations (FAO, 2005).

Introduction

Mithun (Bos frontalis), or ‘Gayal’ or ‘Eso’ or ‘Sial’ or ‘Sandong’ or ‘Wei’, is a rare bovine species, exclusively found in the northeastern hill region (NEHR) of India at an altitude of 300-3000 m. It plays an important role in the socio-economic and cultural life of indigenous tribes of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram and Manipur and is aptly referred to as the ‘Pride of Northeast India’ (Mukherjee et al. 2019). Besides India, mithun population is distributed to China, Bangladesh, Thailand, Bhutan, Myanmar, and Malaysia. The Indian mithun is a medium- to large-sized majestic ruminant with a characteristic jet-black body, an ash-colored forehead, and ‘white stockings’ on all the limbs. This unique animal has a special preference for salt feeding, is a skilled browser even in steep, hilly terrain, and does not need pasture land like cattle. Mithun is primarily reared under a free range system as an important source of lean meat, rich in amino acids, proteins, PUFA, etc. On September 1, 2023, the Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI) officially certified the mithun as a food animal (Joshi et al., 2021; Lalchamliani et al., 2024; Ramesh et al., 2024). Compared to milk from other species, mithun milk has much larger quantities of fat, lactose, solids-not fat (SNF), calcium, important vitamins A, D, and E, essential amino acids, and polyunsaturated fatty acids (Devi et al., 2023).

“Knowledge Management is the process by which an organization identifies, creates, manages and delivers information to enhance workforce performance. The purpose of knowledge management is to provide information collected from employees, best practices, clients, competitors and other sources in a format that employees can use to the productivity and quality of their work”

Before attempting to address the question of knowledge management, it’s probably appropriate to develop some perspective regarding this stuff called knowledge. Consider this observation made by Neil Fleming [1996] as a basis for thought relating to the following points.

The present study was undertaken to study the trends of area, production and productivity of major fruit crops in the Himachal Pradesh state. The study was based on secondary data from 1974-75 to 2010-11. The data was collected from several government publications and website. To analyze the trend of area, production and productivity of major fruit crops in the Himachal Pradesh state, the linear, quadratic and exponential functional forms were used. To fit the trend, quadratic functional form was used due to its higher R² value as compared to other two forms. Besides these, compound growth rate, coefficient of variation and instability index was also estimated. The effects of area, productivity and their interaction towards increasing production were also estimated in the present study. The growing of major fruit crops was not risky in the Himachal Pradesh state as revealed by the lower coefficient of variation. The coefficients of variation (CV) of area, production and productivity of major fruit crops were less than 100.13 per cent. The instability indices for area, production and productivity for major fruit crops in the Himachal Pradesh state were positive and thereby indicating less risk for growing major fruit crops in the state. The increase in production is due to increase in area as well as interaction of area and productivity of fruit crops in the state. This may be due to the adoption of high yield variety seed of major fruit crops and adoption of improved methods by the farming community during last decade.