eChapters

Abstract

Ethnobotany is the area of study which include direct interaction of human and plants. This communication compiles and evaluates 301 ethnobotanically important medicinal plants used by ethnic tribes for the treatment of different ailments living in Uttarakhand Himalaya. The state is a home of five major tribes, viz., Bhoxa, Bhotiya, Tharu, Raji, and Jaunsari. These tribal people have age-old relations with plants, and their indigenous knowledge passed from one generation to another. In this communication, a total of 90 plant families were reviewed and recorded that Asteraceae, Lamiaceae, Rosaceae, Fabaceae, Amaranthaceae Apiaceae, Combretaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Anacardiaceae and Malvaceae members are frequently used as medicinal plants. Total 68 roots of different species, followed by leaves of 55 species, whole plants of 29 species, fruits of 26 species and 28 types of seeds of different plants families used by locals for the treatment of various diseases such as fever, cold, cough, diabetes, skin problems, digestive problems and other associated ailments. The mode of application of herbal formulations varies from tribe to tribe. Herbaceous communities belonging to 160 species were the frequently used plant groups followed by trees, shrubs, and lianas. The decoction was recorded as the most frequently used method of preparation. Medicinal plants sold in the market was not primary for local people rather herbal plants locally available used as food, spice and beverages preparations. Therefore, there is a need for proper documentation and conservation planting of these unique medicinal plants growing in the Himalayas.

Introduction

The tribal population comprising 705 tribal communities spread over various states of India contributes 8.6 % of total India’s population (Census 2011). Their culture, traditions and practices interpenetrate almost all the aspects of Indian culture and civilisation. From the Aryan, Dravidian to the Indo-Tibetan languages, Indian tribal culture has also seen a tremendous merging of cultures within its own people. Some of these communities share similarities and yet are diverse in their religious and traditional beliefs. Some are prominent worshippers of the Hindu deities while others follow the path of the Christian missionaries. Animism and all forms of pagan worship are still prevalent in these communities. The societies by which these tribal communities survive are very patriarchal in their outlook although some tribal communities have gradually inherited the modern forms of society where each one is respected for his or her own set of views and beliefs. India’s tribal population is over-dependent on agriculture and forest related livelihood sources. 

Since the beginning of the Planning process, efforts have been made to ensure that the tribal people were included in the growth process. However, the strategy changed with each Five-Year Plan as new lessons were learnt from various developmental efforts. The First Five Year Plan emphasized the provision of additional financial resources through a community development approach to address the problems of tribal people rather than evolving a clear-cut tribal development strategy. Towards the end of the Plan (1954), 43 Special Multipurpose Tribal Development Projects (MTDPs) were created. These MTDPs could not fully serve the interest of the tribal people since the schemes were numerous and of a general nature. This approach continued during the second Five Year Plan. In the Third Plan, a different strategy for tribal development was evolved by converting the Community Development Blocks, where the concentration of tribal population was 66% and above, into Tribal Development Blocks (TDBs). By the end of the fourth Five Year Plan, the number of Tribal Development Blocks in the country rose to 504. The strategy of development through Tribal Development Blocks had its limitations as well, as it failed to address the cause of the tribal population of the country living outside the Tribal Development Blocks, which comprised more than 60% of the total tribal population. During the th on 5 Five Year Plan period, the exercise of identification of tribal majority blocks was undertaken. These were later constituted into 194 ITDAs/ITDPs in the country.

The present Tribal Sub Plan (TSP) strategy was initially developed by an Expert Committee set up by the Ministry of Education and Social Welfare in 1972 under the Chairmanship of Prof. S.C. Dube for the rapid socio-economic development of tribal people and was adopted for the first time in the Fifth Five Year Plan. The TSP strategy, with some modifications, continues till this day and the salient features concerning TSP for States, are given below:

INTRODUCTION

Tribulus terrestris L. (Gokhru) is an important industrial herb, belonging to family Zygophyllaceae which includes 285 species representing around two dozen genera. Members of this family are distributed in tropical and warm climates. Most species are shrubs, but some grow as small trees or herbs. T. terrestris is a mat forming plant that grows extensively in warm and dry areas all over the world. In China, India, Greece and other parts of the world, the species finds wide application in folk medicine, in polyherbal formulations and as food supplement for physical rejuvenation, to enhance muscle strength, sexual potency, etc. Amidst many positive claims, clinical trials are recommended to evaluate its reported toxicity in animals.

The Hans Krebs cycle, known by different names like the citric acid or tricarboxylic acid cycle, was named after the scientist Hans Krebs. The citric acid cycle is named after the citrate product formed in the cycle. The name tricarboxylic acid is given as citrate itself, which is a tricarboxylic acid due to the presence of three carboxyl functional groups (-COOH).
The tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle occurs in aerobic conditions and within mitochondrial ETC, involving various sequential oxidoreductase reactions. The cycle requires Acetyl-CoA (C2 molecule) and oxaloacetate molecule (C4 molecule) to begin with the formation of a citrate molecule (C6 molecule). Acetyl-CoA is generated from the pyruvate (glycolysis), the fatty acids (lipolysis), or by oxidative deamination of specific amino acids. The complete oxidation of a glucose molecule results in the end products like energy (ATP), CO2 and H2O. A molecule of Acetyl-CoA has two carbons. It is formed from a three-carbon pyruvic acid molecule generated from the glycolysis of a sixcarbon glucose molecule. Acetyl-CoA is the substrate for this cycle and is an energy-rich molecule having a thioester bond between coenzyme A and acetic acid.
8.1 Formation of acetyl-CoA from Pyruvic Acid
Pyruvate is obtained by glycolysis or the oxidation of glucogenic amino acids. The pyruvic acid produced in the cytoplasm crosses the inner membrane of the mitochondrion to enter the mitochondrial matrix, where it undergoes oxidative decarboxylation, forming Acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA carries (carrier molecule) the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle. It also links various metabolic products with the TCA cycle. Such products can be from the EMP cycle, beta-oxidation, and oxidative deamination of amino acids. Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvic acid needs a complex enzyme system known as pyruvate dehydrogenase

Introduction

Trichoderma, a genus of fungi found ubiquitously in soil, has garnered significant attention as a potent bio-control agent for managing soil-borne diseases in flowers. These diseases, caused by pathogenic fungi like Fusarium, Pythium and Rhizoctonia, can devastate floral crops, leading to substantial economic losses. Trichoderma species combat these pathogens through multiple mechanisms, including mycoparasitism, competition for nutrients and space, production of antimicrobial compounds and enhancement of plant immunity. By colonizing root surfaces, Trichoderma forms a protective barrier against harmful pathogens, effectively reducing their impact. Additionally, Trichoderma’s ability to decompose organic matter and improve soil structure further contributes to plant health and vigor. Its use aligns with sustainable agricultural practices, offering an eco-friendly alternative to chemical pesticides, which can have detrimental environmental effects and lead to resistance in pathogens. The application of Trichoderma not only promotes healthier, more resilient flower crops but also supports the broader goal of reducing reliance on synthetic agrochemicals. As research continues to unveil the full potential of Trichoderma, its role in integrated disease management strategies is poised to expand, making it an invaluable tool for floriculture and sustainable agriculture worldwide.

1. Introduction

Agriculture is prime source of living for rural people world wide effective in raising incomes among the poorest compared to other sectors. In Indian economy horticulture has been recognized as one of the most potential agriculture endeavours in terms of exponential growth. The Horticultural crops viz., fruits counting nuts, vegetables with potato, ornamental plants plus cut flowers, spices, plantation crops and medicinal and fragrant plants has developed a prime promoter for monetary growth in numerous of the states in the nation and it pays 30.4% to GDP of agriculture (ICAR website).

Etiological Agent

Trichomonas gallinae, a flagellate protozoan. Strains vary in pathogenicity. The disease continues to be of significance in pigeons and doves. It has also been reported in raptors.

1. Country Profile
 
Trinidad & Tobago comprises two islands with Trinidad being by far the larger of the two. They have a combined land area of 5,130 sq. km with Trinidad being 4,825 square kilometer. Over 95 per cent of the population of 1.3 million lives in Trinidad. Tobago’s affairs are, for the most part, administered separately through the Tobago House of Assembly, and therefore, the description of it’s extension system is reported separately.

The CSO report (CSO, 2004) listed Trinidad as having approximately 18,142 farmers who are mostly male (85 per cent) and average age of 52 years. These farmers farm on 84,900 hectares of arable land. The majority of this land (72.5 per cent) is under crop cultivation. While most of this land is dedicated to Sugarcane production, tree crops and vegetable cultivation are also important commodities. The rest of the farmland is used for Livestock (10.6 per cent), mixed farming (16.3 per cent) and some small amount of fisheries production. The majority of farms (63 per cent) are less than 5 hectare in size with 22  per cent being less than 0.5 hectare. Agriculture is mainly rain- fed but increasing amounts of farmland are being irrigated. Trinidad has six months of dry season (January-June) and an annual rainfall of 2010.9 mm of rain.

1. INTRODUCTION

Agricultural Extension in Trinidad and Tobago is searching for a way to effectively use Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) to improve the delivery of services to the farming community. The notion of a demand-driven extension service seems to appeal to the Ministry of Agriculture, and many believe that ICT has the potential to become a primary enabler to improving the extension service.

The country has a population of 1.3 million with one of the highest per capita incomes in Latin American and the Caribbean (US$16,090 in 2007). Oil and gas account for 40 per cent of GDP and 80 per cent of exports. The unemployment rate is 5 per cent, and the labour market is characterized by chronic shortage, high price and low productivity particularly in the agricultural sector (Government of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, 2008). One of the government’s objectives is to develop a vibrant agriculture sector to reverse the decline of agriculture. The government’s operational plan 2007-2010 identifies a model for transformation which includes joint ventures with the private sector, investments to develop farms via Government to Government arrangements, and improvements in infrastructure and communication (Republic of Trinidad and Tobago, 2007).

ABSTRACT

This paper takes cues from the previous paper on the evolution of IPR concepts and attempts explaining the nuggets of TRIPS and analyzes the current trends in its implementation.

Introduction

As the TRIPS Agreement signifies stronger protection of conventional and new areas of intellectual property, the question that how implementation of TRIPS could influence developed and developing countries is to be addressed. The implications of such influence have far reaching consequences in terms of socio-economic development of Nation States, including geopolitical strategies and hence, a proper understanding on the plausible influence is essential.

Major cucurbits grown in India are cucumber, watermelon, muskmelon, ash gourd, pumpkin and squashes, snake gourd, ridge gourd, smooth gourd, bottle gourd, round gourd, bitter gourd, pointed gourd, ivy gourd,pointed gourd and oriental pickling melon. After independence,a lot of breeding work were done in these crops at many research institutes in the country which  resulted in  release of several high yielding/disease resistant varieties/hybrids.

Being warm season crops, cucurbits are tropical in origin, mostly in Africa, Tropical America and Asia. Flowering in cucurbits normally start in 40 to 45 days after sowing depending on weather conditions. Sequence of flowering follows a set pattern, namely the first 4 to 6 flowering nodes would bear staminate flowers and later pistillate flowers appear. Many sex forms are seen in cucurbits viz., monoecious, dioecious, gynoecious,trimonoecious, gynomonoecious and andromonoecious. Sex modification is also possible in cucurbits by exogenous application of plant growth regulators. GA₃ and AgNO₃ are used for inducing male flowers in gynoecious lines. Conversely,ethrel and TIBA  are used to promote greater number of female flowers. This kind of sex modification is more useful and practicable in  cucumber and bottle gourd where continuous and simultaneous flowering, fruit set and fruit picking take place.

Mango occupies a pre-eminent place amongst the fruit crops grown in India and is acknowledged as the ‘King of Fruits’. Mango is the pride of the garden and one of the choicest fruits known to mankind. Mango possesses unique nutritional and medicinal qualities apart from being a rich source of vitamins A and C. Young and unripe fruits are utilized for culinary purposes, preparing pickles, chutneys because of their acidic taste as well as for extraction of tannin and other astringent products. Ripe fruits are a delicacy for the table and are utilized in preparing squash, juices, nectar, jam, cereal flakes, custard powder, baby food, mango leather and toffee. Canned mango slices and pulp are indeed very popular. The inside kernel of the stone being rich in carbohydrates, calcium and fat, can be used as a source of food for certain industrial purposes.

BANANA

Musa paradisiaca L

F. Musaceae

Banana, an antique food crop of the world is known as the ‘Apple of the Paradise’ and botanically named as Musa paradisiaca. Plants of the Musaceae family as a whole are strictly old world plants which are believed to be originated in the hot, tropical regions of S. E. Asia (Simmonds, 1962). Malaysia is considered as the primary centre of origin of M. acuminata (AA and AAA cultivars) and from there, it spread to India and Burma where M. balbisiana is the native. In the IndoBurman peripheral area, natural hybridization of acuminata and balbisiana types occurred and thus India is regarded as a major centre of origin for more the 300 types (AB, AAB and ABB cultivars) out of the 600 types of Musa germplasm. Mention of plantain in Ramayana (2000 BC), Arthsastra (250 BC) and in Chilappathikaram (500 AD) suggests the antiquity and long period of domestication of banana fruit in India. Present day type/cultivars were originated through natural hybridization, mutation and polyploidy breeding and perpetuated through vegetative propagation.

It was introduced to East Africa even before Christ and to the Mediterranean region about 650 AD. It reached the New World in 1516 AD and its cultivation is distributed throughout the warmer countries situated in the region between 30⁰ N and 30⁰ S of the equator. Now banana is grown widely in 130 countries like Brazil, China, India, Ecuador, Columbia, Venezuela, Florida, Panama, Cuba, Uganda, Tanzania, Zaire, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Honduras, Nigeria, Fiji, India, Philippines, Thailand, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Australia etc. and total (world) area is 88.5 lakh ha with a production of 97.2 million tonnes. Fifty per cent of the global production is from India, Ecuador, Brazil and China.

Tropical plum (Spondias mombin) also known as yellow mombin, hog plum, and java plum, is a deciduous fruit species widely spread in the tropics. This species is evaluated for its fruit as an unconventional source of vitamins A and C, which are used for making juices, ice creams and jellies. This plant also has medical importance.
 
It is a graceful tree of the family Anacardiaceae, a native of tropical America. It was introduced into India for edible fruit and also to serve as fencing. The fruit flesh (48% on  weight of fruit) contains: total solids 11.47%, protein 1.38%, fat 0.57%, acids (astartaric) 1.50%, reducing sugars 9.41%, sucrose nil, fibre 1.17%, and mineral matter 0.66%. The seeds are eaten when tender. The fruit is a good source of minerals and vitamin B1 and C.

Introduction

The tropical root and tuber crops are comprised of crops covering several genera. They are staple foods in many parts of the tropics, being the source of most of the daily carbohydrate intake for large populations. These carbohydrates are mostly starches found in storage organs, which may be enlarged roots, corms, rhizomes, or tubers. Many root and tuber crops are grown as traditional foods or are adapted to unique ecosystems and are of little importance to world food production. Others such as cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) and white-fleshed sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas L.) are known worldwide. Several of these crops have been termed under-exploited and deserving of considerably more research input

Potato and Banana chips: Potato chips are one of the popular snack foods consumed throughout the country. Chips are mostly prepared by small scale artisans / confectioners, and sold in plastic film or paper packs. Recently, however some of the companies have installed plants having relatively large capacities and have started marketing chips in attractive packs. The fat content generally ranges between 25-40% and moisture content between 2-4%. Potatoes having high total solids, low reducing sugars and low amylase activity are most suitable for chips manufacture.

Banana chips are prepared from varieties rich in starch having very low levels of soluble sugars and polyphenol - oxidase activity. These are mostly processed and marketed in Southern States especially in Kerala. Previously, the chips were fried in coconut oil, but now other vegetable oils are also used in their processing. Relatively, banana chips are harder in texture than potato chips.

Tropical root and tuber crops are the third important group of food crops after cereals and pulses. Tuber crops hold a premier position among food crops in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. These crops are rich in starch and calories and have great potential in meeting the food and energy needs.  More than 840 million people do not have enough food to meet their basic daily energy needs. Far more - an estimated 3 billion - suffer the insidious effects of micronutrient deficiencies leading to hidden hunger. Apart from its popular use as food, tubers also find an important space in cattle feed and agro industries sector.Tropical tuber crops possess high photosynthetic ability coupled with the capacity to yield under marginal lands, adverse biotic and abiotic stress etc (Ravindran et al., 2008).

Tomato, the ‘Apple of Love’ or ‘Golden Apple’ is one of the most popular, widely grown and highly praised vegetable in the world. In India, commonly referred as ‘Poor Man’s Orange’, has wider coverage in comparison to other vegetables. Tomato universally treated as ‘Protective Food’, is eaten raw or cooked or in processed form (soup, juice, ketchup, puree, paste and powder, green tomato - pickles and preserves) or it supplies vitamin C and adds variety of colours and flavours to food. It is a very good source of income to small and marginal farmers and contributes to nutrition of consumers. Tomato seed contains 24% oil used as salad oil and in manufacture of margarine. By virtue of its many attributes, it is considered as a favourite crop for research in physiology and cytogenetics, all over the world. Tomato is also rich in medicinal value. The pulp and juice are digestible, mild aperient, a promoter of gastric secretion and blood purifier. Tomato, a primary source of lycopene, showed significant association with low prostate cancer risk and cancers of digestive tract. It is one of the best vegetables which keeps our stomach and intestine in good condition. Tomato juice has become an exceedingly popular appetizer and beverage.

Introduction

Trout farming is considered as one of the oldest forms of commercial fish production and dates back to 400 years in Europe and about 150 years in US (Hinshaw, 1990). In India, the upper Himalayan region and Western Ghats are the areas where trout culture and farming are restricted due to suitable climatic conditions. The UT of J&K, especially Kashmir region plays a major role towards trout culture, thus being major contributor of trout as well. In Kashmir, the introduction of trout started in the year 1899 with the arrival of first batch of Brown trout (Salmo trutta fario) ova of 10,000 eyed eggs from England (UK). This introduction of trout eggs to Kashmir was assisted by the Duke of Bedford. Woefully, this batch of 10,000 eggs expired on the way due to the unavailability of air transport. Then, the second batch of trout ova arrived in the year 1900 in a magnificent condition from Howeiton in Scotland, assisted by Mr. J.S. Macdonall consisting of 1800 fry. Out of these 1000 swim-up fry were successfully reared up to the adulthood and the first spawning or eggtaking of Salmo trutta fario, was done in December 1905 at Harwan near Srinagar (Kashmir) by F. J. Mitchell and rest of 800 fry were reared at his personal residence in Bhag - i - Dilawar Khan in the heart of city near Khankah-i-Moula. In 1905-1906, Mitchell succeeded in establishing a regular Trout Hatchery at Harwan Srinagar Kashmir, having a capacity of 100,000 green eggs. Since then brown trout has established itself throughout the Kashmir and parts of Jammu notably in Baderwah and Poonch providing f ly and spoon fishing year after year to thousands of anglers visiting the state.It was from Kashmir that brown trout spread to other sections of the Himalayas. In 1912, Mitchell succeeded in hatching and rearing rainbow trout eggs from a consignment presented to him by the Bristol Water Works England. Today J&K Fisheries Department has achieved remarkable success in trout culture (Hassan and Pandey 2012). In the year 1984, Trout Fish Farming Project was established at Kokernag under cold water fisheries by the assistance of European Economic Community, serving as mother unit for the production of quality seed of Rainbow trout and Brown trout.This project provided a major thrust to the trout fisheries in the UT of J&K from last two decades.Besides this, there is another trout hatchery at Laribal Srinagar where quality trout seed of rainbow trout and brown trout is being produced (Hassan and Pandey 2012).