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Botany: The Cocoa (Theobroma cocoa) belonging to the family Sterculiaceae. Cocoa tree is a shade tolerant, moisture loving, understory rainforest tree. The trees live for up to 100 years, but cultivated trees are considered economically productive for only about 60 years. Naturally Cocao grows to a height of 15 meters, but cultivated trees are trimmed shorter to make harvesting easier. The leaves of Cocoa are smooth bright green, oblong, about 15cm by 8cm. The seeds are encased in a large colourful pod which grows close to tree after a flower. The large pod is green while maturing and turns yellow, orange, red or purple when ripe. They range from about 10 cm to greater than 40 cm in length.

Soil and climate: Potash rich alluvial soils friable in nature with high humus and moisture retentivity with a pH of 6.6-7.0 are suitable. Cocoa is normally cultivated at altitudes upto 1200 m above MSL with an annual rainfall of 150 cm and a relative humidity of 80 % and annual mean temperature of 24^oC to 25^oC. Cocoa can be grown as intercrop in coconut and arecanut gardens.

Dried Cocoa Bean have chemical composition as: The shell (testa) represents 10-14% dry weight of the cocoa bean, while the kernel or cotyledon is made up of most of the remaining 86-90%. The cotyledon confers characteristic flavours and aromas of chocolate and is composed of two types of parenchyma storage cells.

Before processing, the quality ofbeans is evaluated for the following indicators:

1. Degree of fermentation
2. Moisture content (maximum 6%)
3. Number of defects
4. Number of broken beans
5. Bean count (number per 100 g)

Cocoa butter, also called the obroma oil, is a pale-yellow, edible fat extracted from the cocoa bean. It is used to make chocolate, as well as some ointments, toiletries, and pharmaceuticals. Cocoa butter has a cocoa flavor and aroma. Its melting point is just below human body temperature. Cocoa butter that has been refined by neutralization with an alkaline solution and decoloured with for example bentonite, activated carbon etc. Subsequent deodorization can also be applied. The type of process used may affect the quality of the cocoa butter. For example, a too high deodorization temperature or a too severe alkalization can completely alter its setting (solidification) characteristics. High-quality raw materials are needed to make the best quality cocoa butter. The other important factors for high quality are the origin of the beans and the processing conditions used. Press cocoa butter, which is most commonly used in the chocolate industry, is only filtered and (partly) deodorized to obtain the desired flavour. Cocoa butter contains a high proportion of saturated fats as well as monounsaturated oleic acid, which typically occurs in each triglyceride.

7.1. Origin and distribution

• Native to Tropical America, the Amazon Basin.

• Domesticated in Mexico and Central and South America.

• Cultivated in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu mainly as intercrop and multi-storey crop with arecanut and coconut from 1970 onwards.

7.2. Economic importance

• Cocoa is a cauliflorus beverage crop.

• Chocolate, hot chocolate, cocoa powder and dry powder are made

• Cocoa butter (the fat) can be extracted.

• Used in Mesoamerican foods including tejate and Mexican drink that also includes maize.

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is the third important beverage crop grown for its seeds known as beans, used mainly in chocolate industry. It is the source of cocoa butter and cocoa mass.

Botanical Name:  Theobroma cacao L. 
Family :   Sterculiaceae
Origin :  Central and South America.
Chromosome No :  2n=20
Type of fruit : Drupe.
Type of Inflorescence : Dichasial (cyme)
Useable Part : Seed 

Introduction

Botanical name of cocoa is Theobroma cacao and family is Malvaceae. The cocoa bean, also cacao bean or simply cocoa or cacao, is the dried and fully fermented fatty seed of Theobroma cacao, from which cocoa solids and cocoa butter are extracted. Cocoa flavour is the most distinct feature of chocolate, thus cocoa beans are the basis of chocolate. Dried cocoa beans are usually processed into cocoa butter, which contains fat between 56% and 58%, made up of a mixture of triglycerides. Cocoa butter with this composition is good for making chocolate and has favourable hardness and a melting point of body temperature. Theobroma cacao originated from the Jungle of the Amazon in Brazil. Theobroma cacao consists of two subspecies: the Cacao, a subspecies known as the Criollo, which can be found in Central and South America, and spharocarpum, which is also called theForastero. The Criollo has superior and fine flavour. The pods are red and the beans have no color. Forastero has a green pod

Cocoa, Theobroma cacao is an important commercial plantation crop of humid tropics. It was introduced as a mixed crop in India and is cultivated in coconut and arecanut plantations large scale from 1970 onwards. It is grown as an under- storey intercrop with sufficient shade in southern states of India. Tamil Nadu is the major cocoa producing state in India. Some pests of economic importance are described hereunder:

Mealy bugs, Planococcus lilacinus (Ckll.) and P. citri (Pseudococcidae: Hemiptera)

These two species are most prevalent in all cocoa growing tracts of the country. Beside cocoa, it also infests coffee, citrus, guava, mango, etc. The adult female is an oval wingless insect which measures 4mm in length. The body colour is chocolate brown and the dorsal body surface is covered with thick waxy covering (Plate 14g). The male is winged and free living.

Cocoa is popularly known as cacao in many cocoa growing nations. Cocoa beans are the source of commercial cocoa. The cocoa products viz., cocoa liquor, cocoa butter, cocoa cake, cocoa powder and cocoa chocolate are widely consumed across the World. Cocoa powder is essentially used as flavour in biscuits, ice cream, dairy drinks and cakes. Apart its use as flavour it is also used in the manufacture of coatings for confectioners or frozen desserts. Cocoa powder is also consumed by the beverage industry for example for the preparation of chocolate milk. Besides the traditional uses in chocolate manufacture and confectionery, cocoa butter is also used in the manufacture of tobacco products, soap and cosmetics. It is also a folk remedy for burns, cough, dry lips, fever, malaria, rheumatism, snakebite and wounds. It is reported to be antiseptic and diuretic. Looking at the industry needs for various purposes, there is a heavy demand for cocoa. At present, the gap between supply and demand in cocoa appears to be more at the national level. To fill the gap, various agro-technologies and crop improvement strategies are to be chalked out, for which the response of the crop to various environmental factors are to be understood. Weather aberrations during the flowering and fruiting result in the final cocoa production. Therefore, it is important to understand the effect of weather on flowering and fruiting pattern of cocoa to minimize the crop losses against the weather abnormalities. Though it is known that cocoa yield is highly variable and sensitive to various weather factors, the studies on crop weather relationships in cocoa and its response to climate change/variability are relatively scant

Botany: Coconut palm (Cocos nucifera) belonging to the family Palmae is a slender palm tree widely distributed throughout the tropical regions,with a size that can vary between 12 to 30 meters high. Each inflorescence is a branched flower cluster (panicle), located at the base of the leaves. Its flowers, male and female (monoecious), can be white to pale yellow. Fruiting occurs throughout the year, and the fruit is a drupe with a dry fibrous mesocarp popularly known as coconut.

Coconut fruit has an ovoid shape, constituted by 3 angles and 3 germination holes at the end, with a size between 20 and 30 centimeters in diameter. Coconut fruit consists of a brown fibrous bark and a hard shell, booking a seed inside. The central cavity of the fruit has an aqueous or milky liquid called coconut water that is a nutritional mixture aimed for coconut to grow. When the fruit ripens , this fluid accumulates fat and it is called coconut juice or milk. The seed of the coconut palm is the second largest known , after the coco-de-mer (Lodoicea maldivica ), that can reach 40–50 cm in diameter and weigh from 15 to 30 kg. The seed of coconut is hollow inside and it is covered with a white pulp, oily and edible.

Medicinal uses:It is said to have analgesic, antirheumatic, antibacterial , anticancer, antioxidant, hypoglycemic, hypotensive and immune stimulating properties. Its oil also has numerous cosmetic applications

3.1. Origin and distribution

• Origin is in South Asia - Malaysia, Pacific.

• In the Pacific, cultivated on islands in Southeast Asia - Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia.

• In the Indian Ocean, centre of cultivation is southern periphery of India including Sri Lanka, Maldives and Laccadives.

• In India, coconut palms are grown on the entire coastal belt of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu followed by Goa, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, and Odisha.

• Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh are the major coconut producing states accounting for more than 90% of area and production

Coconut is a traditional plantation crop of India and assumes the status of a high value commercial crop. In India, most of the acreage under coconut palm (90%) lies in the four southern states i.e., Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Kerala ranks first in area (53.76%) and production (45%) followed by Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh. Coconut is mostly a crop of small farmers in India, the average size of a holding being 0.22 ha. More than 90% of the five million coconut holdings in the country are less than one ha in size. The income derived from such small holdings is not sufficient to sustain even the small families.

1) Bud Rot
Diagnostic Symptoms
• Severe on young palms.
• Yellowish green discoloration of the heart leaf or crown leaf.
• The basal tissues of the leaf rot quickly and can be easily separated from the crown.
• Spindle withers and droop down.
• Older leaves develop irregular, water soaked spots which are sunken in nature.
• The leaves and sheath in the central spindle fall off leaving an outer whorl of green leaves.
• The withered central shoot can be pulled out very easily from the crown.
• The central crown may rot and in few months the tree may wilt.
• Young nuts fail to mature and fall (Fig.1).

Coconut is the most beautiful and useful of palms known to mankind. Coconut is unique, producing a host of products and by products with distinctive applications at home and in industry. It is essentially an oil seed crop providing all amenities for human life, which include food, energetic beverage, medicine, fibre, wood, shell and a variety of raw materials for production of array of products of commercial importance. In view of its versatile uses and affinity to Indian culture, it is rightly called the “tree of heaven” or “Kalpavriksha”.

Botanical Name : Cocus nucifera Linn. 
Family : Palmae
Origin : South East Asia and Malaysia. 
Chromosome No :  2n = 32
Type of fruit : Drupe.
Type of Inflorescence : Spadix
Useable Part : Kernel

Coconuts are the fruit of the coconut palm, botanically known as Cocos nucifera, where nucifera means “nut-bearing”. The fruit-bearing palms are native to Malaysia and southern Asia. The coconut has been regarded as ‘man’s most useful tree’, ‘mankind’s greatest provider in the tropics’, ‘one of the nature’s greatest gifts to man’, ‘tree of life’, ‘tree of abundance’, ‘tree of plenty’ and the ‘tree of heaven’ or ‘Kalpa Vriksha’ in India. In Sanskrit Kalpa Vriksha means “tree which gives all that is necessary for living” because nearly all parts of the tree can be used in some manner or another. The Indian state of Kerala is known as the land of coconuts. The name derives from “Kera” (the coconut tree) and “Alam” (place or earth). It has great antiquity in India which is also evident from the fact that the part of Malabar Coast, extending from South Kanara to Cape Comorin, is known as Keralam meaning the land of coconut. The coconut industry is intimately associated with the rural life and occupation of the people of Malabar Coast.

Though the coconut palm is subjected to attack by a number of insect and non insect pests although only 8-10 species of insect pests are considered to be important. Others assume importance, once in a while at isolated locations.

Major pests

The major pests of coconut include the rhinoceros beetle, red palm weevil, black headed caterpillar, root grub and the perianth mite.

Genus : Cocos 
Species : nucifera L.
Family : Palmae
Chromosome No. : 2n =32

“Tree of heaven, Tree of life, Mankind’s 
                                                  greatest provider in the tropics”    

The generic name Cocos is after Portuguese for monkey which refers to the end of the nut being like a monkey’s head. The genus comprises of beautiful palms and grows to majestic form in its natural habitat usually unarmed trees with pinnatisect leaves. Spadices appear in leaf axis grown widely in almost all the tropical countries. Coconut is often considered as Kalpa Vriksha (Tree of Heaven) for it not only supplies drink, food and shelter but also provides raw material for number of industries.

Coconut (Cocos nucifera L.) is sacredly considered as Kalpavriksha as it supplements the human beings.The popular name coconut is considered to be derived from Spanish word Coco implying “monkey face” which designates reference to the triple scars embossed on the shell which are identical to two eyes and a nose on the monkey’s face. Coconut belongs to family Arecaceae. Coconut palm has been the platform of a critical and sustainable life support system in the humid tropical parts of India. It is undoubtedly the most utilized plant on planet earth in context of number and wide range of products encompassing from the edible kernel, oil, shell liquid which is used as a refreshing drink, sweet sap and endless derivative of foliage, trunk and fiber utilized for widespread utility in agriculture field.

The production of coconut has continued to expand under the traditional niches of marginal land holders and subsistent farmers in the Southern states of our country. Coconut possesses unique capacity to survive and grow in typically distinct soil conditions while it broadly restricts to the regions possessing medium and high rainfall situations. Coconut plays a pivotal role in the economy of India. India is the leading producer of coconut around the globe possessing 31% share with a production of 20440 million nuts from an area of 1975 thousand hectares. Coconut industry supplements sustenance and livelihood to around 12 million people in India. Coconut is aptly known as Kalpavriksha which sensibly means that each and every part of a coconut is utilizable to support the mankind. The leaves of coconut palms get its utility for thatching of house in traditional ways. Besides this, baskets, sheds and husk are utilized for making coir products. Charcoal and activated carbon are made from shell. Coconut is used daily as a traditional ingredient in local cuisines of various Indian States. The other utility products of coconut include virgin coconut oil, dark chocolate etc. The adoption of these products has generated both income of farmers and employment in coconut sector.

• Coconut Research Station (CRS)-1916.
• Central Coconut Research Station, Kayangulam, Kerala (CCRS)- 1947.
• Generic name (cocus) is derived from the Spanish word ‘coco’ which means ‘monkey face’.
• Coconut industry employs 10 million people.
• Monolaurin content of coconut oil has anti-HIV property.
• Dwarf coconut is self-pollinated while and tall coconut is cross-pollinated in nature.
• Fully mature nut has 30-40% coir.
• Kerala has the highest share (45%) in coconut production in India: followed by Tamil Nadu (22%) and Karnataka (12%).
• The productivity of (7608 nuts/ha) Indian coconut is the best in the world.
• India ranks no.1 in terms of coconut productivity in the world.
• In India, 9-12 months old seedlings are generally transplanted
• Coconut is derived from the Spanish word ‘coco meaning ‘monkey face’.
• Tall palms: Var. typical (Nar), most commonly cultivated in all the coconut growing areas of the world, the height of 25-30m. Long pre-bearing age of 6-10 years, cross-pollinated.

Plantation Crops

Plantation crops occupy an area of around 4 million hectares which is about 2.8 per cent of the total cropped area. However, the export potential of these crops is high and they account for 27 per cent of total agricultural export. The common plantation crops include coconut, oil palm, areca nut, tea, coffee, cocoa, cashewnut and rubber etc. Various pests infest these crops at different stages and cause economic damage. The crop wise details are as under:

Coconut Coconut,

Cocos nucifera also known as ‘Kalpa Vriksha’, as all the parts of the tree are utilized in one or other way. India is the largest producer of coconut in the world. Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh accounts for 90 per cent production of coconut. The other states namely West Bengal, Odisha ,Gujarat, Assam and Bihar contribute around 10 per cent of the total coconut producción. Pests at different stages of crop growth infest coconut tres, resulting in significant economic damage.

The Coconut palm, also known as the Cocos Nucifera L., is one of the most fascinating and beautiful palms in the world. The coconut is believed to have originated in southeast Asia (Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines) or Micronesia. Coconut has been cultivated in India since ages and plays an important role in social, economic and cultural activities of the people. The palm is amenable to both plantation and homestead management and it can be either a major crop or a minor one in a homestead garden of mixed crops. While responding favourably to scientific management, the palm also tolerates negligent farming to a certain extent. Thus, it can adapt to the divergent farming situations and management practices that are prevalent in different agro-climatic regions. The coconut palm is usually found near the sea on sandy beaches where it can tolerate salt spray and brackish soils. It is also grown under different soil types such as loamy, laterite, coastal sandy, alluvial, clayey and reclaimed soils of the marshy low lands. The ideal soil conditions for better growth and performance of the
palm are proper drainage, good water holding capacity, and presence of water table within three metres and absence of rock or any hard substratum within two meters of the surface. The coconut palm can also grow well inland, within altitudinal limit of 600 m to 1000 m in the Tropics. It requires an equatorial climate with high humidity. A year-round warm and humid climate favours thegrowth of coconut. The palm does not withstand prolonged spells of extreme weather/climate variations under rain fed conditions. A welldistributed rainfall of 1300–2300 mm per annum is preferred. It is known as a coastal tree since it is grown along the Coasts and Islands and does not tolerate high diurnal temperature range, that is the difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures.

18.1 Introduction
The cocoons are harvested and sold to the reeling agencies. Harvesting has to be done after the sclerotization of the pupal cuticle and before the emergence of adult moth. It has been recommended to harvest at the fifth day of spinning for tropical races and seventh or eighth day for temperate races. Delay in harvesting leads to pierced cocoon by the emerging moth and early harvesting causes injury to the unsclerotized pupa and thereby soiling the cocoon. The cocoons are normally harvested by hand or by simple devices. Faecal pellets if any on them must be removed and cleaned. Healthy cocoons must be separated from the defective ones and sorted out based on their size.
18.2 Harvesting of Cocoon
After completion of spinning of cocoon, the larval skin is cast off and pupation takes place. This generally occurs on the 3rd/4th day of spinning in the case of multivoltines and 4th/5th day of spinning in bivoltines and univoltines in the temperate regions. The pupa when formed has a thin cuticular skin which is soft to touch and may get ruptured easily, if disturbed. Too much delay in harvest is also not desirable, as it reduces the weight of cocoons. Harvesting of cocoons is normally done by hand. Only in the case of revolving mountages simple devices are used. The harvesting process is the best time for sorting cocoons according to the quality as good cocoons are easily distinguishable from double and defective cocoons.

The Codex alimentarius is a collection of standards, codes of practice, guidelines and other recommendations relative to food.

It is derived from latin word which means Food Code.

Codex alimentarius is about safe, good food for everyone - everywhere.

International food trade has existed for thousands of years but until not too long agofood wasmainlyproduced, soldand consumed locally. Over the last century theamount offoodtraded internationallyhas grownexponentially, and a quantity and variety of food never before possible travels the globe today.

The CODEX ALIMENTARIUS international food standards, guidelines and codes of practice contribute to thesafety, qualityandfairnessof this international food trade. Consumers can trust the safety and quality of the food products theybuyand importers can trust that the food theyordered will be in accordance with their specifications.

Public concerns about food safety issues are often placing Codex at the centre of global debates. Biotechnology, pesticides, food additives and contaminants are some of the issues discussed in Codex meetings. Codex standards are based on the best available science assisted by independent international risk assessment bodies or ad-hoc consultations organized by FAO and WHO.

Moisture Content
 
Two maximum moisture levels are provided to meet different climatic conditions and marketing practices. Lower values in the first column are suggested for countries with tropical climates or when long-term (more than one crop year) storage is a normal commercial practice. The values in the second column are suggested for more moderate climates or when other short term storage is the normal commercial practice.

Data collected by using different data collection methods remain meaningless until it is screened, cleaned, coded, analyzed and summarized. Data cleaning and screening mostly come under the purview of statistical logics and techniques hence not dealt with in this practical guide. Since these aspects will be dealt by the statistical experts from the allied statistical wings. Presuming that students are aware about data cleaning and screening, we will proceed further with data coding.

Introduction

Almost every test of reasoning contains questions on coding. In such questions, generally one word and its code are given, and the students are required to find the code for the other word. The student is required to apply the same logic, as was applied in the given words.

Let’s discuss some of the commonly asked questions based on coding : Some of the major types of coding logics are

Introduction
At the end of gastrulation, the mesoderm of the developing embryo differentiates into three regions: paraxial, intermediate, and lateral mesoderm. These regions play crucial roles in the formation of various body structures. As development proceeds, clefts form in the lateral mesoderm, which later coalesce to form a cavity. This cavity splits the lateral mesoderm into two layers: the somatic (outer) layer and the splanchnic (inner) layer. The space between these layers on each side of the midline becomes known as the coelomic cavity. These left and right coelomic cavities extend cranially, meet in front of the developing neural and cardiogenic plates, and fuse to form a horseshoe-shaped coelomic cavity. The walls of the developing coelomic cavity have two layers. The outer layer consists of somatic mesoderm, which fuses with ectoderm to form the somatopleure. The inner layer consists of splanchnic mesoderm, which fuses with endoderm to form the splanchnopleure. The mesodermal cells lining the coelomic cavity differentiate into a simple squamous epithelium called mesothelium. As cranial, caudal, and lateral folding occurs during embryonic development, the convex region of the horseshoe-shaped coelom eventually takes a ventral position to the foregut and developing heart, forming the primordium of the pericardial cavity. The developing coelomic cavities, initially continuous with one another at the umbilicus, become separated into intra-embryonic and extra-embryonic regions. The intra-embryonic coelom gives rise to the pericardial, pleural, and peritoneal cavities, while the extraembryonic coelom is associated with the developing fetal membranes. As the embryo folds laterally, the coelomic cavity divides into two separate components. The pleural cavities, which surround the developing lungs, are initially part of the pleuropericardial cavity, alongside the developing heart. As mesodermal folds, known as pleuropericardial folds, grow medially, they enclose the common cardinal veins and the phrenic nerves. These folds eventually separate the pleuro-pericardial cavity into two parts: the pleural cavities dorsally, and the pericardial cavities ventrally. The developing lungs grow

There are other groups that contribute to the reactivity of enzymes beside amino acid residues.

These groups are called cofactors - chemicals required by apoenzymes (inactive) to become holoenzymes (active).

There are two types of cofactors:

1. Essential ions - metal ions -inorganic
2. Coenzymes - organic molecules that act as group-transfer reagents (accept or donate groups)- can also be H⁺ and/or e^-

Both provide reactive groups not found on amino acids side chains.

Coenzymes can be either cosubstrates (loosely bound to enzyme; is altered, then regenerated) or prosthetic groups (tightly bound to enzyme).

Coenzymes can be classified by their source:

Botany: Coffee trees are evergreen shrubs of the rubiaceae family. Coffee of commerce consists of seeds of coffee which when roasted, ground and soaked in hot water yields a fragrant stimulating infusion used for preparing the beverage called Coffee. It is native of America and introduced in India in 1936 near Chickmanglur in Karnataka.

Coffee plants have bright green opposite leaves with smooth margins. Its flowers, white, grow in clusters in the axils of the leaves and are aromatic. From them, fruits are born.They are red drupes with the size of a cherry The outside of the fruit is fleshy and inside it there are two seeds or coffee beans, surrounded by a membranous layer of leathery texture, hence this layer is commonly known as the “parchment”. Some species of trees only produce one seed per fruit are known as “pearl coffee”. In double seed varieties, the two seeds that grow inside each fruit press each other, so they stop the growth in the part which is in contact, so this becomes flat.

Soil and Climate: Coffee arbica comes up well in high altitude from 800 to 1650 meters but -C. canephora Pierre ex A.Froehner adopts well to lower elevations. At high altitude the crop is often late and susceptiable to frost and high winds.Evenly distributed rainfall of 2250 mm is essential. Heavy rainfall is not counducive as it encourages rotting of leaves and plants are easily susceptible to fungal diseases.

1) Rust
Diagnostic Symptoms
• The disease is restricted to leaves although sometimes it can seen on tender shoots and berries.
• The rust pustules appear as small spots, 1-2 mm in diameter.
• In early stages these spots are yellowish becoming orange in color with increase in size.
• On the upper surface, opposite the spots on the lower surface , the color is often brownish.
• In severe attack leaves may dry and wither.
• The berries remain small and fail to ripen.
• Extensive defoliation weakens the trees and results in poor yield, severe die back of twigs, and death of trees (Fig.1).

2.1. Chromosome number

• Basic chromosome number for the genus Coffea is n=11

• Coffea canephora-diploid (2n=2x=22)

• Coffea arabica (2n=4x=44 )

2.2. Origin and distribution

• Original domesticated coffee plant is said to have been from Harar and native population is derived from Ethiopia (Abyssinia Plateau) with distinct nearby populations in Sudan and Kenya.

• From where, it was taken to Arabia in 11^th century.

• From Arabia, its seeds were brought to India by Baba Budan in the 17^th Century and were raised in the Baba Budan Hills of Karnataka.

• British planters established large coffee estates near Chikmagalur (Karnataka) in 1826, in Manantody (Wynad) and Shevoroys in 1830 and Nilgiris in 1839.

• Almost the entire production is shared by Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, smaller production in Andhra Pradesh, north eastern states and Madhya Pradesh.

• Karnataka is the largest producer accounting for 70% of total coffee production and 60% of the area

• Kozhikode, Waynad, Malappuram, Kollam, Kannur and Palakkad are the chief producing districts in Kerala.

Coffee (Coffea species) occupies a pride of place, in the international trade of commodities, next to petroleum in trade volume and money value. Coffee is also the second important popular beverage for its aroma and mild stimulant action. Its dried beans are roasted, ground and brewed to make a stimulating & refreshing beverage. Its production forms the backbone of more than 60 developing nations. Use of coffee has evolved from original chewing of leaves and beans of the plant to relieve pain, hunger and fatigue to the present more sophisticated uses, like espresso and decaffeinated coffees. Its use was first discovered in Arabia around mid-15th century.

Two species mostly grown worldwide

Coffee is an important cash and export crop for small-scale farmers. The crop suffers heavy yield losses due to damage caused by a wide range of insect pests
 
White stem-borer : Xylotrechus quadripes : Cerambycidae

This is one of the important and serious pests of arabica coffee. Other types are also attacked to a slightly lesser extent. The adult is a dark-brown longicorn beetle having several white markings on the elytra and thorax.

Coffee is a much sought after beverage and plantation crop grown in about 80 countries across the globe of which over 50 are considered to be major producers. Coffee is also the second largest traded commodity in the world, next to petroleum products and is popularly referred to as “Brown Gold”. Coffee contributes substantially to the national exchequers of the producing countries through export earnings and also generates employment to about 120 million people in production, processing and trading, worldwide. The economic relevance of coffee is underlined by the fact that it generates significant income throughout the supply chain, representing a gross added value of over USD 458 billion annual (Belo Horizonte Declaration, International Coffee Organization, Sept. 2013). The annual revenue of the coffee industry alone is estimated to exceed USD 200 billion. At origin, production of coffee provides livelihood for up to 25 million farmers and their families. (Coffee Development report, ICO, 2019).

Caffeine is a major pharmacologically active compound in coffee and it is a mild central nervous system stimulant. ³. In addition caffeine is added to many popular carbonated drinks and is also a component of a number of pharmacological preparations and over-the-counter medicines. A typical cup of coffee provides approximately 75–100 mg caffeine. The European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) in its ‘Scientific Opinion on the Safety of Caffeine’ concluded that ‘habitual intakes of caffeine up to 400 mg per day do not give rise to safety concerns for non-pregnant adults. They also advised that intakes up to 200 mg per day do not give concern for those who are pregnant or breastfeeding.

India produces two types of coffee i.e. arabica, Coffea arabica and robusta, C. canephora. The former has higher market value than the latter. Coffee is cultivated mainly in the Southern parts of India with Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu being the major coffee producing states. Some of the major pests which limits the cultivation of coffee are described below:

White stem borer, Xylotrechus quadripes Cheverolat (Cerambycidae: Coleoptera)

It is a serious pest of Arabica coffee in India. Alternate host plants include Robusta coffee, teak and Indian olive tree. Eggs are milky white when freshly laid but turns yellow later on. These are elongate, oval in shape and measures 1.25 –1.28 mm in length and 0.46 – 0.5 mm in width. The adult is a dark brown longicorn beetle (16mm long) and bears several white markings on the elytra (Plate 14c). The pale yellow stout full grown grub broader towards the anterior most region, measures 20-30 mm in length.

Arabica coffee is reported to have originated in the tropical rain forests in Ethiopian highlands while Robusta is a native of the humid tropical lowlands of Central Africa, probably, Uganda. The major coffee producing countries
across the World are distributed between 23°N and 23°S of the equator. Beyond these latitudinal limits, temperature becomes a major limiting factor as coffee plants are sensitive to extreme temperature regimes. Thus within
the latitudes, altitude becomes a major factor. In areas, nearer to the equator, coffee plants require higher altitudes when compared to farther north and south (6.1 plate). The world’s largest coffee producer is Brazil with around 30% of total world output of coffee. Columbia comes in second with around two thirds of Brazil’s production. India is the sixth largest (after Brazil, Columbia, Vietnam, Indonesia and Ethiopia) producer of coffee. Coffee is reportedly introduced into the Western Ghats regions of South India around 1600 AD. However, commercial cultivation of coffee was opened in South India with the British enterprise and investment during late 1820s. Coffee occupies an important position among the plantation crops in India. It is cultivated mainly in the traditional States of Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and to some extent in non-traditional areas viz., Andhra Pradesh and Orissa as well as in North Eastern States viz., Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Tripura, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh. Coffee in India is unique. Almost all coffee plantation are grown under the shade of forest/planted trees, where as it is grown under open conditions in all the major producing countries viz., Brazil, Vietnam and Columbia.

This chapter examines how people perceive, process and respond to information in technology-rich work environments. Cognitive ergonomics is introduced as the study of mental processes—including attention, memory, perception, reasoning and decision-making—in human-system interaction. The chapter explains how excessive mental workload, digital interruptions, poorly organized information and confusing interfaces can increase fatigue and errors. Principles for designing clear displays, intuitive controls, effective feedback and manageable information flows are presented. Particular attention is given to concentration, situational awareness, decision support and error prevention. The chapter demonstrates that modern workplaces must support both the physical body and the cognitive capacity of users to achieve safe, reliable and productive performance.

• These are the injuries occurred to male animal at the time of natural mating. These injuries do not occur only to genital organs but also to other organs or muscles. • Most coital injuries occur to male animal with good libido (high testosterone level) but having aggressiveness and poor experience of mating. Such animals tend to quick response in the presence of estrous female. Some of the coital injuries are: 1. Balanitis and Posthitis • Trauma to the penis and prepuce which later on leads to infection and inflammation. • This occurs especially in young inexperienced bulls with great sexual desire • Adhesion may lead to phimosis or paraphimosis condition • IBR-IPV infection from cow genitalia after mating results in pus formation and necrosis of the penis and prepuce. • Prepucial eversion leads to laceration and bleeding.

Cold chain logistics refers to the technology and processes that ensure the safe transportation of temperature-sensitive goods throughout the supply chain. It is deeply rooted in scientific principles, assessing the relationship between temperature and perishability to maintain product integrity.
Any item categorized as “perishable” typically requires cold chain management. This includes food products such as meat, seafood, and fresh produce, as well as medical supplies and pharmaceuticals.
Although, modern transportation is a relatively recent development, the  practice of moving temperature-sensitive products dates back to the late 1700s when the British used ice to preserve fish. By the late 1800s, ice was widely used to transport perishables. Dairy products were shipped from rural areas to urban markets. Cold chain technology has long been a crucial component of global trade and will continue to play a vital role in the future.
COLD CHAIN LOGISTICS
A cold chain is a specialized supply chain designed for handling perishable and temperature-sensitive goods, commonly referred to as cool cargo. These include fresh produce, meat, dairy, seafood, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, flowers, wine, and other delicate products. To preserve the quality and integrity of these perishable items, specific lowtemperature conditions must be maintained throughout the supply chain. Certain products require refrigeration; others must be kept frozen, while some demand extreme conditions—often referred to as an ultralow chain or deep freeze. Any failure to maintain the appropriate temperature can result in product spoilage, compromising safety and quality, and ultimately leading to significant financial losses.

India is bestowed with huge production of fruits, vegetables, cereals, millets, sugarcane along with meat production, milk production, fish production and poultry. Despite such a huge production in India, owing to perishable nature of these produce around 25-30 percent of the produce is being lost as post harvest loss. The one important reason for this may be the production of the crops are season specific and during the peak season the production is more while demand for consumption is less. It may be possible to cut down these losses to great extent, if these produces may be transported from the produces states to those who are not producing due to agro-climatic reasons. So for making transportation of the perishable a successful venture in decreasing post harvest loss, there must be proper cool chain management facilities both at producing site as well as marketing place. The aim of the cool chain management must be to keep the produce in saleable condition during entire storage periods. Some products are stored for short period whereas fresh fruits, vegetables require cold storage. Foods before keeping into the storage room need some pre-storage treatments for better results.

Introduction

The cold chain is a meticulously managed series of actions using specialized equipment to ensure products remain within a specific low-temperature range from production to consumption (ASHRAE, 2024; IIR, 2024). This unbroken sequence encompasses refrigerated production, storage, and distribution activities, safeguarding the safety and quality of perishable and thermo-sensitive goods like agricultural commodities (such as fresh produce, meat, dairy, seafood, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, flowers, wine, etc.), processed foods and pharmaceuticals (Aung and Chang, 2014; Awan, 2023). For climacteric fruits like bananas, custard apples, apples, pears, tomatoes, mangoes, and avocados, cold storage facilitates controlled ripening, extending the time between harvest and consumption. Cold chain management, integral to the overall supply chain, requires expertise in maintaining temperature, air quality, and adherence to regulatory standards. Any disruption in this process can lead to product spoilage and financial implications (FAO, 2019). The management of the cold chain system is crucial for preserving the freshness, taste, and nutritional value of fruits from harvest to consumption (Kader, 2003).

19.1 Introduction

Food safety is one of the important factor for food industry, regulatory agencies and consumers. Nowadays consumers are demanding food which is safe and of high quality in terms of nutrition due to a healthier life style. Food safety refers to all those hazards, that make food injurious to the health of the consumer and it is not negotiable. Food may be contaminated physically, chemically or microbiologically, mainly microbial contamination is of high concern in the food industries. Various pathogenic and spoilage causing microorganisms, viruses, insects can deteriorate the food products and cause food borne illnesses. Therefore, there is a need to eliminate these undesirable microorganisms from the food industries to ensure food safety to the consumer. Various methods are available to eliminate these undesirable microorganisms such as thermal technologies like pasteurization, dehydration, retort processing, freezing etc. and non thermal technologies like microwave heating, Pulsed Electric Field (PEF), High Pressure Processing (HPP), Pulsed Light Technology, Ohmic Heating, Ultra sonics, Pulsed X-Rays. But these technologies have certain disadvantages like thermal technologies lowers the nutritional value and leads to unwanted changes in the foods' sensory attributes of the food products whereas non thermal technologies retain better nutritional and sensory quality of food than thermal technologies but they are cost effective, required specialised equipments and trained personnel. Cold plasma technology (CPT) is a non-thermal green technology used now-a-days for variety of application in various industries especially in food industry. It is proposed to be an alternative method for eliminating microorganism from the fresh produce. This technology does not require extreme process conditions and can be used as a good alternative source for food preservation without affecting its nutritional and sensory attributes. Plasma is an ionized gas, consisting of active species like positively and negatively charged ions, electrons, free radicals, and gas atoms, metastable and quanta of electromagnetic radiation (photons). When the energy source is turned off, active species used to disappear immediately, therefore cold plasma technology is environmental friendly and fulfilling all ecological standards. Based on the properties of plasma, it can be applied in various fields like electronics, life sciences, textile, packaging and food industries. In food industries, it is showing promising application by retaining the nutritional, functional, and sensory characteristics thus ensuring the fresh appearance of the food product and satisfying the consumer need.

Thermal heating methods are used from long time to decontaminate the food products from microorganism and therefore increase its shelf life and ultimately make the product safe for human consumption. But these methods diminish the sensory, physicochemical and nutritional properties of food (Barba et al., 2012). Also, the cost of generation of heat in manufacture of food product make the product costlier in thermal processing and also create environmental issue.

Cold plasma technology represents an innovative non-thermal approach for improving food safety while minimizing undesirable changes associated with conventional heat treatments. This chapter introduces the fundamental principles of cold plasma and explains how reactive species generated during plasma treatment can contribute to microbial inactivation and food decontamination. It examines major plasma-generation methods, including dielectric barrier discharge, corona discharge and microwave plasma systems. The chapter highlights the potential of cold plasma for preserving nutritional and sensory characteristics while reducing microbial hazards. It also considers technological challenges such as treatment uniformity, interactions between plasma and food matrices and the need for process optimization and regulatory validation for wider industrial adoption.

The technique of preserving fruit by the use of low temperature dates from the eighteenth century with the first use of ice house in 1750. Later in 1800s commercial cold storages have come up for the storage of perishables like meat, dairy and fruit products.  The main change took place in the cold store in recent years has been the introduction of multi temperature chambers with humidity control for specific products. Cold preservation can be either refrigeration or freezing. Household refrigerators usually run at 4-7^ºC. Chilling or cold storage usually uses a slightly lower temperature on the basis of the food to be refrigerated. In freezing a temperature of -18^ºC or below is used. Chilling will preserve perishable foods for days or weeks and freezing will preserve foods for months or even years.

6.1. INTRODUCTION

Low temperature is one of the major environmental factors that limit the plant growth. Many plants of tropical origin suffer cold damage when exposed to temperature below 20ºC (Graham and Patterson, 1982, Andrews, 1987). Cold temperature in crop plants are compounded by cold snap– a lower than usual drop in temperature that causes the crop to fail. Low temperature in growing season may reduce germination, retard vegetative growth by inducing metabolic imbalances and can delay or prevent productive development. Each plant species has an optimum range of temperature for its normal growth and development. It varies among the genotypes within a species, the specific temperature also depends on the growth stage and development of the particular genotype.

41.1 Introduction

Fishes adapted to live at a temperature ranging from 10-200C constitute coldwater f ish. Upland water at high altitudes in the mountains and spring water at low elevations in temperate regions remain cooler than the rest, allowing coldwater f isheries to thrive in these areas. Such bodies of water, which include several hill streams, pools, lakes and reservoirs, are abundant in the Himalayan and Deccan plateau regions of peninsular India. These are fed by either melting snow or springs in the north or rain on the Deccan plateau.

I. FILL UPS

1. The botanical name of radish is _____.
2. The botanical name of knol-khol is _____.
3. The botanical name of cauliflower is _____.
4. The botanical name of cabbage is _____.
   1. The botanical name of carrot is _____.