eChapters

Types of Traditional and Modern Farming Systems
India, with its diverse agro-climatic conditions, has witnessed the coexistence of both traditional and modern farming systems. These systems reflect the evolution of agricultural practices—from indigenous knowledge and
subsistence farming to technology-driven, market-oriented approaches. A. Traditional Farming Systems Traditional farming systems are based on indigenous knowledge, ecological balance, and subsistence needs. These systems are often practiced by tribal, marginal, and small-scale farmers and are well-adapted to local environments.
Types of Traditional Farming Systems
1. Subsistence Farming
Subsistence farming is a traditional farming system in which a farmer grows crops and/or rears livestock mainly to meet the needs of their own family, with little or no surplus for sale in the market. It is generally practiced on small landholdings, using simple tools, indigenous seeds, and family labor.
• Focus: Meeting the food needs of the family.
• Crops: Millets, pulses, vegetables.
• Tools: Manual or animal-drawn implements.

Urban agriculture involves various aspects of growing plants and taking up other activities. Those include terrace gardening, vertical gardening, green walls, hydroponics, etc. Although several other types of garden present in urban areas, the gardens suitable for residental premises are discussed in chapter.

Terrace Garden

Terrace garden is generally established on a terrace or rooftop of a house having limited land space for gardening. This type of gardening is gaining momentum in the cities. These gardens can be created on different buildings like residential flats, individual houses, public buildings, commercial establishments and factories. The growth and development of the plants give immense pleasure to the garden owner. Plucking a fresh cucumber on the terrace provides a different pleasure, which is beyond the physical value of the fruit. The experience of consuming a fresh watermelon from own garden has unique satisfaction. As there is minimum or no space for growing plants in urban areas, the terrace can be transformed to an attractive garden. Irrespective of size of the terrace, it can be converted to a beautiful garden with proper planning. There are multiple ways for revamping the terrace depending on available time and resources.

In view of fast development of industrial sector and rapid urbanization, the vegetable gardening of various types has great scope for providing food and nutritional security, promoting health, solving employment problem and raising the economic status of an individual and the country as a whole. In many of the developing countries, protein-energy malnutrition is the most important health problem, which has long-term ailing consequences. Iron and vitamin A deficiencies are also potent contributors towards morbidity, mortality, underweight and stunted growth of individuals. Vegetables from homestead gardens can combat these dreaded social nuisances. In many cases, indigenous vegetables, gathered or grown wild, are more nutritious than foreign high value exotic species (Drescher, 1998). Various types of vegetable farming are being practiced the world over depending on the area available and objectives for the disposal of the produce. Based on the mode of disposal, the vegetable gardening can be categorized into two types:

2.1 INTRODUCTION

Vegetables are grown and consumed throughout the country either on small or commercial scale. Various terms have been used for vegetable gardening, based on the objectives for which they are grown and can be classified into various types depending on the acreage cultivated, method of cultivation and purpose of vegetable production. Based upon these facts, vegetable cultivation is divided into the following types of gardens:

Home or Kitchen Gardening: The purpose of this gardening is to supply the varieties of vegetables for family use.

Commercial Vegetable Gardening: This is the method of growing vegetables on large scale to earn profit and is further divided into seven types

2.1 Introduction

Vegetables are grown and consumed throughout the country either on small or commercial scale. Various terms have been used for vegetable gardening, based on the objectives for which they are grown and can be classified into various types depending on the acreage cultivated, method of cultivation and purpose of vegetable production. Based upon these facts, vegetable cultivation is divided into the following types of gardens:

1. Home or Kitchen Gardening: The purpose of this gardening is to supply the varieties of vegetables for family use.

2. Commercial Vegetable Gardening: This is the method of growing vegetables on large scale to earn profit and is further divided into seven types:

Market gardening

Truck gardening

Vegetable gardening for processing

Vegetable forcing

Vegetable gardening for seed production

Floating gardening

Container gardening

Irrigation

Irrigation means the watering of land to make it ready for agriculture. It is the process of application of water to crops through artificial channels to grow them. Water is vital for the growth of plants. And, there can be no plants or crops if they do not have access to water in some form. It is, thus, crucial to supply water to crops and plants in time as per their need. The supply of water to plants comes from various water resources. For example,

• Wells
• Ponds
• Lakes
• Canals
• Dams and Reservoirs

Importance of Irrigation

Irrigation is necessary for agriculture and farming.

In this chapter, an attempt is made to emphasize the fact that while no country in the World is safe from geohazards, a proper understanding on their causes, ways to mitigate them and surviving techniques would help reduce the life and property loss. Each geohazard has its own characteristic way of potential impact and hence classifying vulnerability of different regions and creating awareness on potential impact is essential. In addition to providing basic information on geohazards, this chapter presents a conceptual model on hazard mitigation, rescue and relief operations.

INTRODUCTION

Every year, thousands of people are killed by volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, landslides and floods. These natural causes damage human settlements and infrastructures (GOI, 2004) inflicting life and economic loss. As human population increases, habitation on hazardous and or vulnerable land becomes more common and the risks posed by these hazards increase. The need to observe their behavior, understand them better and mitigate their effects become ever more urgent (IGOS, 2003). Decades of research may have contributed towards betterment of our understanding on the processes of geohazard formation but still a long way has to be covered to develop better mitigation procedures.

Abstract

Demand for starch is increasing day by day and is met by restricted range of crops. In recent years, substantial progress has been made in obtaining starch from non-conventional sources such as sweet potato, buckwheat, sago, water chestnut, which can be used as a substitute for conventional sources. So it is necessary to search for other underutilized and nonconventional sources of starch to meet the increased demand. Typha angustifolia, an aquatic weed containing appreciable amount of starch in its rhizome and roots, can be used for starch isolation to make its use in food and non-food derivatives. In many parts of the world, starch-rich roots of Typha angustifolia are eaten raw or boiled or dried roots are pulverized into a powder, and then, used as a thickener in soups or added to cereal flours to make biscuits and bread.

Application of greenhouses in agriculture is mainly to modify microclimate for the production of crops with multiple objectives of raising crops in season offseason, round the year, early crops, late crops, breed crops, raise genetically engineered plants, seed production so and so forth. With hi-tech agriculture and modern techniques greenhouses are used for growing crops anywhere and everywhere, on soil under soil, water, under water and space. Greenhouses are mainly used for crop nursery production, crop production largely in vegetables, flowers and herbs. Among fruits mainly strawberry is grown under greehouses commercially. Other fruits can also be grown.

Besides crop production greenhouses are used for dehydration or drying of produce, seed production, for crop improvement using biotechnology and other sciences. Use of greenhouses in uncongenial environments for crop production is common in places like high altitudes, deserts, arctic climate and alike. One of the largest greenhouse complexes in the world is in Almería, Andalucía, Spain, where greenhouses cover almost 200 km2 (49,000 acres). One of the important use of greenhouses world over is raising tissue culture plants through a popularly known process hardening. For hardening of tissue culture plants different types of low and high technology greenhouses are must. Greenhouses in hot, dry climates used specifically to provide shade are sometimes called shade houses. Hydroponic crop production is generally done in greenhouses. Greenhouses are also used as retail market centres mainly for ornamental plants and seedlings and grafts of horticultural crops. Greenhouses are used for maintaining bee (honey bees and bumble bees) colonies as crop pollinators.

20.1 Introduction

The farm management is the science which concerns with making decisions and choices about combining different enterprises and the optimal utilisation of resources available. It is necessary to understand the typical farming decisions. Decisions can be classified into agricultural management decisions, administrative management decisions and marketing management decisions which are discussed below:

20.2 Organisational Management Decisions

These are further sub-divided into operational management decisions and strategic management decisions.

INTRODUCTION
Tyres serve as the essential contact points between your vehicle and the ground. Without tyres, the power generated by the engine would be ineffective in producing movement. This power transfer is known as traction, and the effectiveness of a tyre’s interaction with the surface significantly influences how much of the engine’s power can be utilized. Traction becomes even more critical when operating heavy machinery, particularly for farm and field applications. Tractors, for instance, are built for rugged and demanding conditions, requiring more traction compared to regular tubeless car tyres.
A tyre consists of a torus, made of a complex, flexible, reinforced composite material that surrounds a steel hub and is filled with air under pressure. The tyre’s rolling tread usually features expanded ribs. The design and shape of the torus, as well as the construction materials, are chosen based on the specific application of the tyre. Generally, a tyre is characterized by its construction type, mounting details, ply rating, and other key dimensions, as illustrated in relevant diagrams .

Ubiquinone (UQ): It is a lipophilic metabolite that functions in the electron transport chain in the plasma membranes of prokaryotes, and the inner mitochondrial membranes of eukaryotes, apart from its roles as an antioxidant and in the regeneration of tocopherols. Also called as Coenzyme Q.

Ubiquitin: It is a small protein that is found in almost all cellular tissues in all eukaryotic organisms,( i.e. it occurs ubiquitously) which helps to regulate the processes of other proteins in the body.

Ultracentrifuge: A high speed centrifuge with speed upto 60,000 rpm and centrifugal field of 500,000 x g

U value: U value is a measure of the heat transmission through a building part (wall or window) or through a given thickness of a material (insulation). U values with lower numbers indicate better insulating properties (Plate 614).

UHT milk: This milk is homogenized, heated to atleast 135oC for about 2-3 second, cooled rapidly and then packed in sterilized containers aseptically. The milk in packs can be stored for several months without refrigeration. The nutrient loss is negligible. Used for making yogurt commercially as it does not need to be boiled again.

UHT pasteurization: The milk is heated to ~150oC for a fraction of seconds practically no holding period. It is also called ultra pasteurization.

UHT sterilization: It is method in which food is sterilized, cooled and then aseptically placed in previously sterilized containers which are subsequently sealed in an aseptic environment.

Uncontrolled observation: Uncontrolled observation is the observation when it takes place in the natural setting and the situations cannot be controlled by the research worker.
Unethical: Any professional activity that is not in accordance with the acceptedcode of conduct for that profession is considered unethical.

Ulmus parvifolia Jacq. (Ulmaceae): Eng. – Chinese Elm; Ladakhi Shampoo Tree / Yumbuk [W]. A small to medium deciduous tree growing upto 12 m tall, across the region as a temperate woody element. Leaves leathery, toothed and lustrous green. Trunk has a handsome, flaking bark of mottled greys with tans and reds. Also used as a landscape tree. In Ladakh the bark of the plant used as shampoo to promote hair growth.

Abstract

The UAE Space Reconnaissance Center (SRC) is accounted as a major national and regional source of up-to-date geospatial data, with direct reception of IKONOS, IRS and KOMPSAT satellite imagery as well as access to some other satellite and aerial imagery resources; an activity which covers the whole Middle East region. The main concern in monitoring the environment of UAE and surrounding countries is the desertification process, the monitoring of which requires careful watching of the sand movement and some other relevant features.

This paper throws light on the role of various types of satellite images in monitoring desertification, by utilization of IKONOS, IRS Pan and Landsat TM images covering part of Liwa and Alain areas, representing the two main dune regimes; Liwa and Manadir, which constitutes the northeastern edge of the Empty Quarter sand sea.

The availability of high resolution images makes it possible to detect the yearly or even seasonal sand movements, being controlled by the prevailing wind conditions and distance from the main sand source. The results clarify that movements of up to 25m was encountered at some small sand dunes and about 10m for larger sand dunes, towards the SSE and SSW in Liwa area. In Rimah area a movement of up to 30m was noticed at a small sand dune towards the ENE and about 12m shift in the hinge of a larger sand dune towards the NW. Temporary or permanent ? movement of thin sand sheets can reach 100’s of meters, was easily detected on Landsat images; ~ 25km NE of Alain city. The 5m panchromatic images, on the other hand, helped in tracing sand movements measured in few 10’s of meters, and interpretability of such images was enhanced by merging them with Landsat imagery.

• L-42 is the most suitable cultivar for canning.
• A promising genotype in Allahabad is locally known as “Lal Sebia”.
• Strawberry Guava – P. cattlcianun, P. nolle is a shrub or small tree.
• Triploidy is the cause of seedlessness in guava.
• Red pulp colour is dominant to white and that this character is governed monogenic gene.
• Guava improvement work for the first time was initiated in 1907 at Ganeshkhind Experiment Station, Pune, Maharashtra.
• The fact that Guava wilt is soil-borne was first reported in 1935 from Babakkarpar Allahabad.
• Usually, fifteen days period is required for the complete wilting but some trees take even up to one year.
• In general, the more than 10-year-old plants are more prone to wilt incidence.
• Guava wilt, effects more severely in alkaline soils. Wilting is observed during the rainy season. It starts in August with the largest number of the plant dying in September and October.
• Guava improvement work was started at Pune in 1907.

    Q.1.    What are the common infectious diseases affect teat skin of mammary gland?
    Ans.    The common infectious diseases that affect teat skin of mammary gland are cowpox, buffalopox, pseudocowpox, bovine ulcerative mammillitis, black pox, foot and mouth disease, vesicular exanthema, swine vesicular diseases, contagious exanthyma, Staphylococcus sp., Pasteurella sp etc.

    Q.2.    What is thelitis?
    Ans.    Thelitis is the inflammation of tissues of teat wall caused by traumatic injury to the teat cistern. It is generally manifested with gangrenous mastitis.

    Q.3.    What is the main etiology of gangrenous mastitis?
    Ans.    Staphylococcus aureus

    Q.4.    What are the causes of coming blood in milk and mentions its treatment?

Udder examination is essential in dairy animals because mastitis directly affects animal health, milk quality and farm productivity. This chapter presents practical examination of the udder and teats, including inspection and palpation for abnormalities. Mastitis detection methods include the California Mastitis Test and other milk-based diagnostic procedures. Evaluation of milk characteristics, somatic cell changes and laboratory findings helps identify inflammatory and infectious processes. Appropriate sampling and interpretation support selection of effective treatment. The chapter also emphasizes the importance of early detection and systematic udder examination in maintaining milk quality, preventing production losses and improving overall dairy herd health.

The udder is responsible for milk production. It is composed of four mammary glands each with its own teat (Fig. 167). Swelling of udder or teats is an indication of udder disease warranting clinical exploration and palpation. Visual examination the udder (before and after milking) and palpation is of great significance in detecting abnormalities. The udder is visually inspected from back and sides for symmetry and also palpated thoroughly. Palpation is a simple, quick and easy routine diagnostic tool for mastitis detection. Teats and supra mammary lymph nodes should also be palpated. These examinations aid in detecting fibrosis, inflammation or atrophy. Diffuse fibrosis gives the quarter a firm feeling. Areas of local fibrosis may vary in size and shape. Hot, painful and diffuse swelling with marked abnormality of mammary secretion is seen in acute mammary inflammation (acute mastitis). Atrophy of the gland is the terminal stage of chronic mastitis. With the development of gangrene, the area becomes cold and bluish. Five point palpation scores (Petrovski et al., 2011; Hogan et al., 1995; Scaletti and Harmon, 2012)