eChapters

Udder health, foot health and heat-stress management are major components of dairy herd productivity and animal welfare. This chapter addresses prevention, examination and management of mastitis, including milking hygiene, teat dipping, dry cow therapy, diagnostic testing and appropriate treatment. Foot health is emphasized because neglected feet can result in lameness, reduced milk production, impaired reproduction and increased culling. Heat stress management includes environmental and shed-based interventions to reduce excessive solar and thermal load. The chapter integrates practical management strategies for maintaining udder integrity, sound locomotion and thermal comfort, thereby supporting productivity and overall health of dairy animals.

Udder Health Mastitis is a significant and costly disease of udder affecting dairy cows and buffaloes, leading to reduced milk production, increased veterinary costs, and compromised animal welfare. Effective udder hygiene practices are crucial in preventing and controlling mastitis, maximizing milk production, ensuring animal welfare, minimizing costs, and maintaining consumer trust. By focusing on udder health management through preventative measures and the best practices, dairy farmers can enhance the overall sustainability and profitability of dairy operations. There are six major steps that can lead to a better udder health. •     Farm hygiene and udder hygiene •     Hygienic milking procedure •     Dry cow management and therapy •     Appropriate therapy for mastitis cases during lactation •     Culling chronically infected cows. •     Good nutrition to increase the udder resistance to mastitis Farm hygiene and udder hygiene

Introduction and Relevance
UHT processing of milk was developed to produce a shelf-stable product with minimal chemical changes as encountered with sterilized milk. Aseptically packaged UHT milk can have a shelf life of 06 to 12 months and does not need to be stored in a refrigerator. Its role in the market varies by region. In countries like the India, USA and Canada, where UHT milk occupies a smaller segment of the liquid milk market, it is often used as a backup option, reserved for situations when pasteurized milk is unavailable. Conversely, in regions such as Europe, (particularly France, Belgium, Spain and Germany), Asia, (China, Japan, Thailand and Vietnam) Latin America and (Brazil) in UHT milk is the dominant form of milk available and is consumed regularly. In markets where it is a backup option, UHT milk requires long-term stability of 6–12 months, while in regions where it is used daily, a shorter shelf life of three months or less is often sufficient.
Ultra-High Temperature (UHT) treatment involves heating milk to very high temperatures, typically between 130°C and 150°C, for a brief period of few seconds. This process results in commercially sterile milk, meaning that while not all bacteria are destroyed, those capable of growing under ambient storage conditions are effectively eliminated. An essential component of UHT processing is aseptic packaging, where the sterilized milk is filled into presterilized containers in a sterile environment. This combination ensures that the milk remains free from contamination and maintains its extended shelf life without requiring refrigeration.
Standards for UHT processing vary globally. In the European Union, a minimum temperature of 135°C with an appropriate holding time is mandated. In the United States, the standard for ultra-pasteurization is 280°F (137.8°C) for 2 seconds. Many international standards recommend 135°C for at least 1 second, though some countries do not specify minimum conditions. However, this level of treatment is often regarded as insufficient for completely destroying the spores of spoilage organisms, highlighting the importance of precise temperature-time combinations and the critical role of aseptic packaging in ensuring product safety and stability.

Ulcerative dermatitis is one of the primary features of the skin disease in which discontinuity of the skin along with marked inflammation and necrosis are seen.

Mango (Mangifera indica L.) is one of the most important tropical fruits of the world and is commonly known as the ‘King of fruits’ for its high quality fruits which are very popular among the Indians (Sharma et al., 2008). It is the oldest and extensively cultivated fruit crop in India having high socio-economic significance. India is the home of more than 1000 mango varieties, which originated in the Indo-Burma region (Mukherjee, 1958). India is the largest producer of mango, grown in about 2.3 million hectares with an annual production of 15.02 million tones. However, its productivity is only 6.5 tones per ha against 30 tones per ha in Israel (Bijay Jumar, 2010). Improvement of productivity in mango continues to be the foremost issue in mango production (Sauco, 1993). Of late, all the mango importing countries are considering the India as a source of quality mangoes due to its varietal wealth and availability. Hence, it is imperative to improve the productivity and quality of Indian mangoes to meet the global need (Balamohan et al., 2014).

10.1 Introduction
Developed in the 1950s, ultra-high temperature pasteurization typically involves no hold using a temperature range of 135°C to 150°C. Immediate aseptic packaging determines how well UHT heat treatment of milk works.
10.2 Uperization Developed in Switzerland, this is generally known as “ultra – pasteurization”. Milk is heated in this method under direct steam up to 150 °c for a fraction of a second. One is always learning from this. Fore warming milk to 50 °C is the first stage in the uperization process, meant to eliminate most of the dissolved oxygen and volatile off-flavours by vacuum treatment. In the second step, the milk is first preheated to roughly 80–90 °C and then heated on the uperization chamber under high-pressure steam to roughly 150 °C for ½ to ¾ a second. The product moves into an expansion chamber at almost atmospheric pressure after this heating, therefore inducing some evaporation of moisture. The good is then transferred to a chiller and subsequently into a storage chamber.
The advantages of uperization are
• Long keeping quality.
• Removal of feed and other volatile off-flavours:
• Appreciable homogenization effect.
• Reduction in acidity.
• Efficient destruction of microorganisms.
• Effect of uperization on nutritive value and flavour are not greater than that of pasteurization.

Corpus luteum, one of the biological clock of the estrous cycle and pregnancy, is known foremost for its production of progesterone that blocks the pituitary release of gonadotrophins and prepare the uterus for pregnancy. The ovarian follicle wall consists of granulosa cell and theca cells vascularised and luteinize after ovulation to from a corpus luteum. Corpus luteum is temporary steroid- producing gland undergoes marked structural and functional changes far a short time span during its development functional life and regression. During estrous cycle, the corpus luteum undergoes an initial period of growth (metestrus), followed by a period of maximal function (diestus) and finally by a period of regression (proestrus) preceding the next ovulation (Robert, 1986). The most prominent cell in the CL is the large luteal steroidogenic cell.

Ultrasound imaging has been used to detect and measure the corpus luteum throughout the estrous cycle and corpus luteum has been characterized during pregnancy and non pregnancy. Changes in corpus luteum diameter as detected by ultrasonography are highly correlated with progesterone production. A high correlation has been found in the ultrasonographic detection of bovine corpora lutea (Lean et al., 1992) and between luteal tissue area measured ultrasonographically and plasma progesterone concentration (Bergfelt et al., 1989).

Ultrasonography of the GI tract presents problems and challenges for the sonographer. Sonography of the GI viscera was once throught to be impossible because of artifacts created by gas within the lumen but with the technical advancement in the ultrasonography now the problem has been solved. If the animal is kept of feed and adlib water is given to the dog with I/v fluid than ultrasonography becomes helpful in the diagnosis of gastrointestinal tract disorders. Other conditions such as esophageal carcinomas can also been diagnosed by ultrasonographic endoscopy. in human beings.

The normal ultrasonography of the liver, kidney, stomach & spleen in dogs has been standardized and its use in evaluation of pathological lesions has been reported but ultrasonographic evaluation of oesophagus & intestine, both in normal animals and diseased conditions is yet to be established. Therefore normal ultrasonography of the oesophagus & small intestine in dogs and the importance of diagnostic capability of ultrasonography in diagnosis of pathology of these organs have been compiled.

Ultrasonography or sonography is a diagnostic medical procedure that uses echoes of ultrasound pulses to produce images, of the objects or of the areas of different densities in the body, on the screen. This diagnostic procedure is performed through ultrasound machine. Sonogram is a visual image produced from ultrasonography.

Ultrasound is mainly used for reproductive purposes in bovine, now days it is also used for other applications. Ultrasound is an excellent tool for diagnostic imaging in large animals because it is portable, easy to use in the field, produces results at the time of the examination. It is totally non-invasive. Palpation of a gland can only detect certain levels of abnormality. Ultrasound can give an actual perception of mammary health, a picture of the inside anatomy and pathology. Tumors, scarring, stones, trauma, hematoma formation and level of damage due to mastitis can all be evaluated by this technique. Other diagnostic tools are still primary diagnostic tools, ultrasonogram gives yet another dimension to the hard to diagnose case. It will also allow a better estimate of treatment prognosis to aid in deciding whether to cull or treat a dairy animal.

Congenital anomalies at initial stages of the mammary gland development during gestation may result into presence of supernumerary teats or less number of external teats, in place of usual presence of four teats in buffaloes. Hence, cases with two / three / five or six teats are often encountered in the f ield.

Introduction Ultrasonography is well-established technique in human sciences, particularly for diagnosis of pre-natal defects of fetus. In veterinary sciences, this technique is emerging an important tool. This tool is being employed in the small animal practices, particularly bitches for diagnosis of various reproductive disorders and estimation of gestational status. In the past, veterinarians had limited assistance for assessing reproductive status of this animal. Pregnancy diagnosis in a bitch was possible either with the use of X-rays or transabdominal palpation, but that too at an advanced stage of gestation. These methods could provide information either about presence of pups in vitro, or their number, but assessment of fetal viability was not accurately predicted with these traditional methods. With the use of X-rays, there was always risk of harmful effects on the health of mother and fetus. As far as reproductive disorders are concerned, most of them remained either undiagnosed due to the lack of proper access to the internal organs or were diagnosed with a guess. Diagnostic ultrasound is a valuable alternative imaging system that can provide more accurate information about the canine pregnancy and reproductive disorders in comparison to traditional methods.

Ultrasonography is an important non-invasive diagnostic imaging technique in veterinary medicine. This chapter introduces practical principles, patient preparation and imaging approaches for ruminants, horses and dogs. Abdominal ultrasonography can evaluate organs including the liver, gall bladder, spleen, gastrointestinal tract, kidneys, urinary bladder and reproductive structures. Transabdominal, transthoracic, transrectal, transvaginal and other approaches are described according to anatomical and diagnostic requirements. Proper preparation, including fasting and acoustic gel application, improves image quality. Ultrasonography supports diagnosis of gastrointestinal, urinary, hepatic, reproductive and other disorders and provides valuable real-time information without ionizing radiation.

Ultrasonography, popularly known as sonography, is a non-invasive, radiation free and safe medical procedure being increasingly used for the imaging different body organs/ structures for the diagnosis of various diseases not only in humans but also in farm, companion and exotic pets. The technique involves ultrasound unit, patient and doctor/veterinarian (trained in sonography). Ultrasound Unit Ultrasound unit has processor (central processing unit commonly known as CPU), transducers, key board, data storage and printer (Fig. 187). •     The CPU (central processing unit) is basically a computer having microprocessor, memory, amplifiers and power supplies for the microprocessor and transducer. The CPU transmits electrical currents to the transducer to emit sound waves, and receives the returning echoes. Returning echoes are processed to form the image on the monitor. The processed data and/or image are

This paper primarily considers the general principles of ultrasound and instrumentation and its application in camel reproduction.

Ultrasound waves are mechanical pressure waves similar to audible sound waves and must have a medium in which to audible sound waves and must have a medium in which to propagate. The “frequency” (f) is the number of high- or low- pressure regions crossing each area of tissue each second. The frequencies of the sound waves used in medical ultrasound are much higher than the human audible range (20 to 16000 Hz); hence the waves are called ultrasound. Ultrasound instrumentation

The gray scale imaging equipment uses only time delay and echo amplitude information in creating the image. Most equipment contains the same basic building- block circuits; transmitter, receiver, display and scan converter.

Transmitter

The first circuit building block, the transmitter circuit produces either a high- amplitude, short- duration voltage shock pulse or a driving voltage waveform. Then an output control attenuates the amplitude of the shock pulse or the driving voltage wave form before it is applied to the transducer.

Mammary glands are important part of body which synthesize and store the milk in between milkings or suckling by the calf. Therefore it attains prime importance in any dairy animal. However, it has received little attention in buffaloes till now. Buffalo presents several unique characteristics in terms of milk production, length and shape of teats and arrangement of duct system in the mammary glands. Development of udder may be related to milk production and the knowledge of changes in its structure in relation to different physiological stages may also have practical implication.

Transducer Selection and Preparation of Scanning

Preparation of the site to be imaged will enhance the quality of the image. Therefore, any loose hair and dirt must be clean off. Ultrasound gel is applied to the area of interest. The gel acts as a coupling agent to prevent air from trapping between the transducer and skin. A 7.5 MHz transducer is ideal for imaging the teats. A 5.0 MHz transducer provides an adequate image. The mammary gland should be scanned with a 5.0-7.5 MHz transducer to give adequate penetration. All structures should be scanned in cross section and longitudinal planes.

Ultrasonography in sheep is becoming popular in the field of reproduction and replacing the other old-age techniques, viz. abdominal ballotment, recto- abdominal probes, X-rays and radioimmuno-assays. The reasons are numerous such as unsatisfactory results, hazardous effects to animal, operator or environment, high cost, long delay in diagnostic results and requirement of sophisticated labs. The ultrasound system has low operating cost and does not need special labs as it can be done at farm itself. Ultrasonography is considered safe to sheep and the operator and provides quick and reliable results. The popular opinion about ultrasonography is that it is noninvasive imaging system and is rapid, safe and practical means of diagnosis of pregnancy in sheep. The B-mode real time ultrasonographic system particularly portable system is popular among sheep breeders. In sheep, B-mode real time ultrasonography was used in 1971, using 5 MHz frequency transducer. A transducer of switchable frequency between 7.5 to 5.0 is more popular in sheep practice.

Transrectal Procedure in Sheep

The procedure is similar to goat, but sheep remain quite during transrectal ultrasonography than goat. Following are some of the steps to obtain good quality image:

Ultrasonographic images of stomach are required to diagnose ingestion of any abanormal materials by dog. When content of stomach are dry or there is gas in stomach then, it is difficult to get proper image of stomach. Offering water to animal or oral administration of water with the help of syring is also helpful in getting the images of content of stomach. Some time, while doing ultrasonography, movement of contents of stomach can be visualized. Stomach can be images between liver and spleen. The size depends upon contents or intake of food by dog. For proper image of gastrointestinal tract including stomach, there should not be gas in GIT. One should remember that ultrasound beam does not travel in gas. The best medium of ultrasound beam is liquid.

Scanning Technique

If possible, fasting for 12 hours is good to diminish the amount of gastrointestinal gas. However, non-fasted dogs, when offered water may show adequate image quality. The water may be administered in quantity of 15 ml per kg of bodyweight. Removing the stomach gas using an orogastric tube has been recommended tto enhance the visualization of lesions of the stomach, however, this is not in practice in India.

Ultrasonography in bull is helpful in diagnosis of problems of testis and accessory glands. This can also be used in assessment of development of these organs. Such developmental assessment, when combined with endocrine data, is useful to know age of puberty, sexual development and dimension of these organs. The ultrasonographic images and data are available for testis, bulbourethral gland, prostate and seminal vesicles in the bull. Ultrasonography of testis of bull can be useful to assess developmental changes, testicular dimensions and pathological conditions of the testis viz. tumors, lesions, abscess etc. Epididymis can also be examined for change in lumen, inflammation, granuloma etc. The accessory sex glands can be better viewed in ultrasonographic scanning to assess their dimensions, normal developmental changes and alterations in their morphology. Before, ultrasonography is undertaken, one should thoroughly revise the knowledge of sectional anatomy and location of these organs.

Testis

Location: The testis, in the bull, is located in the scrotum. In abnormal conditions, the testis might be retained in the inguinal canal or abdomen. Before, ultrasonography, location of the testis should be assured. For this, the testis should be palpated to assess their pliability and rule out adhesions with the scrotal wall. In normal condition, the testis should be freely movable in the scrotum, soft of palpation and both the testis should touch the bottom end of scrotum.

The Liver

The liver is a large and an irregular organ of the body, which extends from the sixth to the eleventh intercostal space. It extends much more caudally on the right side as compared to the left side. Its most caudal part is the caudate lobe whose small portion is visualized encircling the right kidney dorsally at the eleventh intercostal space. The liver of a dog is divided into various lobes namely the left lateral, left medial, quadrate, right medial, right lateral and the caudate lobes which are not identifiable ultrasonographically, except when f luid is present in the abdomen. Otherwise, the position of the different liver lobes can only be approximated. The gallbladder is located to the right of the midline between the quadrate and the right medial lobes of the liver.

Proper preparation of the animal is important to obtain images of abdominal orgnas including that of liver. It is better to keep animal off fed for at east six hours prior to ultrasound scanning. This will avoid interference of gases and solid contents of the gastrointestinal tract. If stomach is taken as landmark of scanning then enough fluid should be given prior to scanning to get good images of stomach. The liver can be easily visualized on one side of stomach. One should be liberal in applying good amount of gel over transducer and body for better image of liver.