eChapters

3.1 Language and Principles of Writing: Basic Differences Between the Print, Electronic and Online News

Because each media has a unique readership with different needs, writing for print, electronic, and digital news demands distinct terminology and approaches. Here are the key differences:

Print News: Language

1. Conciseness: Print news requires concise and to-the-point writing due to limited space.
2. Formal Language: Language tends to be more formal and structured.
3. Third Person: Writing is often in the third person.
4. Headlines: Print headlines are shorter and must convey the essence of the story.

Introduction

Azoles, a class of organic compounds containing a five-membered nitrogen containing ring, have garnered significant attention in various fields, including agriculture, medicine, and industry. These compounds are renowned for their diverse applications, particularly as anti fungal agents in both human and veterinary medicine, as well as in agriculture for crop protection. Whatever it may be, alongside their efficacy, concerns have arisen regarding their potential toxicity and environmental impact.

The Role of Azoles

Azoles play a crucial role in combating fungal infections in humans and animals. They inhibit the synthesis of ergosterol, a vital component of fungal cell membranes, thereby disrupting fungal growth and proliferation. Additionally, azoles are used in agriculture to protect crops from fungal diseases, contributing to higher yields and improved food security.

Toxicological Concerns

While azoles have proven effective in controlling fungal infections, their use raises concerns due to potential adverse effects on human health and the environment. The toxicity of azoles stems from several factors, including their mode of action, chemical properties, and metabolic pathways.

Introduction

Phenothiazines are a class of drugs primarily used to treat psychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and severe anxiety. While they can be effective in managing these conditions, they also come with potential risks and toxic effects when not used properly. Understanding the toxicity of phenothiazines is essential for healthcare providers and patients alike to ensure safe usage and minimize adverse effects.

Mechanism of Action

Phenothiazines exert their therapeutic effects by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain, thereby altering neurotransmitter activity and reducing symptoms of psychosis. Additionally, they also block other receptors such as histamine and alpha-adrenergic receptors, contributing to their sedative and antiemetic properties.

Types of Phenothiazines

There arevarious phenothiazine derivatives available, including chlorpro mazine, fluphenazine, thioridazine, and promethazine, among others. Each may have slightly different pharmacological properties and side effect profiles, but they share common characteristics regarding toxicity.

Toxic Effects

Extra Pyramidal Symptoms (EPS)

One of the most well-known toxic effects of phenothiazines is the development of extrapyramidal symptoms, which include akathisia, parkinsonism, and tardive dyskinesia. These symptoms can range from mild discomfort to severe motor disturbances and can be particularly problematic with long-term use.

Introduction

Modern agricultural systems that promote cultivation of a very limited number of crop species have relegated indigenous crops to the status of neglected and underutilised crop species. This has caused a decline in crop diversity in agricultural systems across the world and current research efforts have identified these underutilised crops as having potential to reduce food and nutrition insecurity. This is because of their adaptability to low input agricultural systems and better nutritional composition. Underutilised crops are otherwise known as undervalued or neglected or development opportunity crops (DOCs) (Kahane et al., 2013). They are already cultivated, but underutilised regionally or globally giving relatively low global production and market value. These underutilised crop species have also been described as “minor”, “orphan”, “promising” and “little-used”. Many of these traditional crops grown for food, fiber, fodder, oil and as sources of traditional medicine play a major role in the subsistence of local communities. With good adaptation to often marginal lands, they constitute an important part of the local diet of communities providing valuable nutritional components, which are often lacking in staple crops. Global Facilitation Unit (GFU) for Underutilised species define underutilised crops as, those plant species with under-exploited potential for contributing to food security, health (nutritional/ medicinal), income generation and environmental services.

The Himalayan region extends all along the Northern boundary of India. It experiences harsh environmental conditions, coupled with unfavourable climate, poor physical capacity of soil and threaten habitat. However, low and mid altitude areas provide environment ranging from sub tropical to temperate, where plant life thrives. The diverse eco-habitat of Himalayan region hosts a wide range of plant diversity as well as crop diversity on which native people rely for their food and nutritional security. Among them, amaranth, buckwheat, chenopod, job’s tear millet and rice bean are the potential crop species of the region as they can easily be grown in harsh environments and degraded lands. These crops possess an exceptionally high nutritional value with higher content of protein, lipids and minerals as well as balanced composition of essential amino acid as compared to other cereals. Majority of people in the country are unaware of the nutritive values of underutilized crops. The chapter provides information on taxonomy, origin and distribution, nutritive value, uses, improved varieties, production and protection technology of the major underutilized crops grown in Himalayan region.

Underutilized crops are well adapted to the lands of Himalayan region and provide food and nutritional security to millions of impoverished people who do not have access to modern agricultural inputs. Owing to their nutritional superiority, underutilized crops are becoming popular in urban area as well as in developed countries as for example Amaranth in USA. With constantly increasing awareness for health products, the demand of underutilized crops is likely to grow in near future. Accelerated research and development are, therefore, essential for increasing production as well as productivity of underutilized crops along with mechanization and value addition.

The Andaman and Nicobar group of Islands, popularly known as the Bay islands, consists of 572 islands, islets and rocks, situated off the Eastern coast of India. The Islands are covered from coast to coast with an almost impenetrable growth of luxuriant tropical rain forests. The luxuriant growth of dense forests with tangled mass of climbers, lianes, canes and plant communities provide an additional source of income. Many species of bamboos, bushes, shrubs and stunted trees have tremendous values (Mondal, et al 2000). Most of the diversity is still collected from wild forest habitats largely composed of trees, shrubs and other perennial vegetations. Underutilized fruits provide food, nutrition and sustenance to the natives. Broadly, such underutilized diversity in edible fruits falls into four categories (Groot et al 1993).

Wild fruits were an important source of food for mankind before dawn of civilization and domestication of present day fruits. Cavemen in forests also depended on these fruits and passed on valuable information on utility and choice of wild species of fruits from generation to generation.Thus the present day horticulture came into existence. Also, wild varieties of plants, yielding edible fruits growing throughout the Himalayas, contributed directly to cultural heritage of India. Even today, these fruits are eaten in plenty by local people, as they are commonly available in abundance in their habitats. Fruit crops, which are neither grown commercially on large scale nor traded widely are called underutilized fruit crops. These are cultivated, traded and consumed locally. Underutilized fruit crops have many advantages in terms of easiness to grow, hardy in nature and  production of good crop even under adverse conditions. Most of them are rich sources of vitamins, minerals and other nutrients. Underutilized fruit crops play crucial role in successful running of processing industry round the year in the region. A large proportion of rural population depends on locally available fruits to meet their dietary requirements

In ancient days spices and herbs were valued as basic ingredients of incense, embalming preservatives, ointments, perfumes, antidotes against poisons, cosmetics and medicines and were used less in culinary preparations. A notable use of spices and herbs in ancient and medieval times were for the treatment of a variety of illnesses. Subsequently spices and herbs had come to be used to flavour food and beverages. In the course of time spices and herbs were shown to be useful not only for making the food lasting and palatable, but also in retarding or preventing rancidity and spoilage. This knowledge acted as a catalyst for the use of spices in a variety of processed foods. Based on the uses, herbs and spices are classified in to culinary, cosmetic and pharmaceutical. In the modern world spices have wide affiliation in the culinary art of people around the world, and are used in food industry for flavouring and seasoning, as well as in pharmaceutical preparations in the traditional systems of medicine and in beauty care. Spices and herbs are useful because of the chemical constituents contained in the form of essential oil, oleoresin, oleogum and resins, which impart flavour, pungency and colour to prepared dishes.

The extensive use of improved types of vegetable crops has led to a  situation that the indigenous types are virtually disappearing from ecosystems creating a vacuum in crop biodiversity. Biodiversity of genes, species, ecosystems and habitats will remain under threat. Habitats will be decreased and fragmented, endangering many indigenous, rare, endemic and specialist species populations and ecosystem functions, although generalist and invasive species will continue to spread. Therefore, loss of biodiversity can be considered at three scales: genes, species or populations and habitats or ecosystems. Maintaining thriving natural systems is essential not only for economic or ethical reasons, but also for ecological, social, recreational, educational and aesthetic reasons (Gomez, 1996). Most of these are easy to grow, resistant to pests and diseases, hardy and acceptable to local taste. They are rich in carbohydrate, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals; hence the diets could be diversified to meet the nutritional requirements of the people in the country. The lack of micronutrients, including certain vitamins, minerals and other components needed for a healthy diet, is a pervasive and growing threat throughout the world.

Use of medicinal plants is as old as human civilization. India has a glorious tradition of health care system based on plants, which dates back to vedic era. Rig Veda , the oldest known repository of human knowledge and wisdom (4500-2500 B.C.) mentions about several medicinal plants used by the Aryans while in Atharva veda (2500-2000 B.C.) elaborates description of medicinal plants is given. Later, in Samhita period, the science of medicine systematically organized with clear concept and theories based on the treatises like Charak Samhita – 2000 B.C. and Sushruta Samhita – 1000-800 B.C (Maiti, 2008). Traditionally medicinal plant communities depended on plants to meet their basic needs over centuries. The pharmaceutical industry views plant wealth as a source of income. The modern medicine world perceives plants as a panacea for many ills. Despite this, there is no consolidated strategy to conserve medicinal plants for their use (Purohit and Vyas, 2005).

Among the temperate fruits, nuts have occupied an important position and can be grown in cold arid conditions on marginal lands of Indian hills without much care. In many countries, nut fruits are cultivated in marginal lands, hill slopes under rain fed conditions following the non intensive cultural practices by using cultivars selected to different environments using low quality ecotypes with poor yield. Although; these crops showed much potential to produce more yield provided cultivation in suitable environment condition along with high tech orchard management practices. The major nut fruits grown in world are almond, walnut, pecan, pistachio, hazelnut or filbert, chestnut and macadamia nut. In India, the full potential of almond and walnut has been exploited to great extent. The potential of other nuts are yet to be utilized and need special attention.

In India, nut fruits have not been given due importance in hills compared to pome and stone fruits although much potential exists. Amongst the nut fruits, the potentials of almond and walnut have been exploited to some extent but others are still in the underutilized condition. The main almond and walnut growing states of India are Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand and North-Eastern states.

India is one of the 17 mega biodiversity hot spot of the world contributing to the worlds largest plant resource,from the long stretches of the Eastern Ghats on the east, the greater Himalayan range on the northern planes and Western Ghats on the west. The Eastern Ghats range is unique on its own way to host many valuable flora from time immemorial. The Eastern Ghats are spread over four states from the north east to south east. Among the four states Orissa is one of them consisting of diversified floral resource.

Orchids, more than any other plants, exert a mysterious fascination for most people. All the wild Orchids of tropical regions are highly puzzling and peculiar. These largest spectacular plants of monocot belongs to family Orchidaceae  consisting of more than 17,000 known wild species including 750 genera in the world and the present figure of hybrids among these touches around 80,000 (Rao, T.A., 1998). This family is cosmopolitan in nature having more species in tropics than the temperate regions. This family of monocotyledonous plants has evolved from prototypes of the lily and amaryllis family and is note worthy for the wide variety of its highly specialized and curiously modified forms.

Palms are monocot species, belonging to the family Palmae (Arecaceae). They are perennial and distinguished by having woody stems. Coconut, Arecanut and Oil palm are the major crops coming under this group. Palmyra is a naturally occurring palm in many parts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, Bihar and West Bengal States. Palmyrah is utilized by the locals for tapping inflorescence sap and for fruit. Palms of India are represented by 20 genera and about 96 species among which 24 species belonging to nine genera are endemic to India. The largest genus, Calamus with 44 species is followed by Phoenix seven, Pinanga five and the rest with less than five species each. The genera Borassus, Salaca, Livistona, Nypa, Hyphaene and Ptychoraphis are represented by a single species each. In addition, C. nucifera and A. catechu are extensively cultivated as plantation crops. They have almost naturalized in parts of Kerala and Andaman Nicobar Islands. Except P. sylvestris, C. urens and B. flabellifer which are widespread in peninsular India, the rest are of restricted distribution in specialized eco-geographical regions of the country. The forests of Andaman–Nicobar islands (13 genera, 24 species), northeastern and eastern Himalayan region (12 genera, 36 species) and the Western Ghats (7 genera, 30 species) are major centres of palm concentration. Nypa fruticans and Phoenix paludosa are fringe mangrove species occurring in salt marshes of Sundar-bans and Andaman–Nicobar islands. P. paludosa is also found in Orissa.

Energy remains the mainstay of civilized world. The priorities may lay in cost economics, environment friendliness, import substitution, or self-sufficiency as strategic objectives.  By the year 2050, worldwide energy demand is projected to be at least twice today’s level. Energy and environment are sectors that are of concern for policy makers and scientists.  Indian scenario is unique and different from other developed or developing countries. It has vast areas that lay waste and are not being utilized for cultivation since these are unfertile, dry, sodic, saline, or alkaline. Majority of its population lives in villages.
 
Energy supply must be sustainable and diverse and energy needs to be used more efficiently. Sustainable energy supply, both in the short- and the long-term, is needed for promoting both economic development and people’s quality of life, as well as protecting the environment. We also need a greater diversification of energy resources to ensure against risk of price rises and supply disruptions.

Introduction

Tripura is situated between 22^º56 ‘to 24^º32’ N latitude and 91^º10’ to 92^º21’ E latitude with tropic of cancer passing through it. The total geographical area of state is about 10,491 Sq.Km of which 58.90 percent area is under forest cover. More than 75 percent of the population either directly or indirectly depends on agriculture. The small and marginal farmers contribute about 90 per cent of total farming community and the average size of land holding is 0.97 ha (1990-91) in comparison to 1.25 ha (1976-77), which is the lowest among the seven other North Eastern states.
 
The state weather is characterized by warm and humid subtropical climate with three distinct seasons viz., summer, monsoon and winter with three different cropping seasons like khariff, rabi, summer and jhum cultivation in forest during pre monsoon and late monsoon periods. This state has many rivers out of which the important ones are Juri, Deo, Manu, Dalai, Thowai, Haora, Mahari, Burigang and Gomati which are mainly seasonal. Tripura receives an average rainfall of 2065 mm.The monsoon breaks in May – June and continues for about 4.5-5.0 months.

Qualitative detection of undesirable constituents, adulterants in Feeds: The nutritive value of feed ingredients from the same origin may exhibit variation. The factors which are responsible for the variation are natural variation are natural variation, processing, adulteration and damage, deterioration. These days, due to shortage and high prices of feed ingredients, adulteration is one of the main problems. Feed quality can be examined by different techniques:
(a) Feed microscopy: Stereo or compound microscopy may be used for: (i) Screening method; (ii) Floatation technique.
(b) Chemical tests: For heavy metals, nitrates, phosphates, sulfates, free sulfur, salts: carbonate, chloride, salt, sugar, urea, blood, hoof or horn, leather meal, uric acid.

17.1. The Nigerian Unemployment Milieu: Control Measures taken by the Government

At this juncture, the little efforts that have been made by the government to control unemployment to an extent shall be examined. Records from the Central Bank of Nigeria (1987), show the following efforts made by the government:

1. Youths Empowerment/ employment and skills programme. This was done in terms of provided minor jobs or ‘white-colar’ jobs.

2. Agricultural programmes such as the ‘Operation Feed the Nation’ by the Obasanjo Military Administration.

3. Provision of small scale industries and graduates employment.

4. Special public works (which were temporary). Some of these efforts are still in place while others are forgotten. For example, on the pages of the Businessday Newspaper, on August 4th (pg 13), 12th (pg 49), 21st and 27th, 2009 were the following headings revealed:

Beverage: It includes all drinks whether they are fermented or unfermented, prepared from fruits or non-fruit, sweetened or unsweetened eg. tea, coffee, coca cola, cider, maaza are all beverages.

Fruit Beverages : Beverage which is prepared partly or fully from fruit juice or pulps with or without additives eg. pure fruit juice, squash, cordial, RTS beverage etc.

Non-fruit Beverage : Beverage which does not contain any fruit part eg. Coca cola, pepsi, sherbet etc.

Unfermented Juice or Pure Fruit Juice: This is the natural juice pressed out of the fruit and practically its composition remains unaltered during preparation and preservation. No additives like sugar, acid, water etc. are added. eg apple juice, orange juice.

Fruit Juice Beverage: This is the fruit juice that has been considerably altered in composition by adding water, sugar, acid, flavour, colours, preservatives etc. before consumption. It may or may not be diluted before it is served as a drink eg. squashes, nectars, appetizers etc.

The world ‘‘Unfruitfulness’’ means a state or character of being unfruitful or barrenness. It is a vital constraint in so many fruit crops leading to a great loss to the farming community. In contrary, ‘Fruitfulness’ is the state where a fruit plant is not only having the ability of flowering and fruiting, but also carry on these fruits up to maturity. The inability of the plant to do so is known as ‘unfruitfulness’ or ‘barrenness’. Despite of profuse flowering, poor fruit retention in an orchard has been found owing to poor fruit setting at initial stage and subsequently abscission of the fruitlets. All the trees of an orchard do not bear flowers and fruits in the same extent or regularly and sometimes fail to bear flowers and fruits under similar conditions while other trees bears heavily. Such type of characteristics of trees may be attributed to unfruitfulness. Thus, all the problems affecting fruit retention upto final stage can be considered under unfruitfulness of a tree. Therefore, it is a very complex problem of an orchard and needs proper understanding for economical and effective management to maintain sustainable production of fruit crops.

CAUSES OF UNFRUITFULNESS

There are innumerable causes perceived behind unfruitfulness. Majorly, It may be due to poor root shoot ratio, lack of balance between vegetative and reproductive (fruiting) growth, heavy crop load which leads to restriction of fruit bud production and finally short of the crop in the following years.

Unfruitfulness is a major problem in many fruit crops and their varieties. ‘Fruitfulness’ refers to the state, where a plant is not only capable of flowering and bearing fruit but also takes these fruits to maturity. The inability of plant to reach the fruits to maturity is known as ‘unfruitfulness’ or ‘barrenness’. In spite of adequate flowering, low fruit yields in orchards have been experienced because of low initial fruit set and subsequently higher fruit-let abscission. In an orchard, all the trees do not bear fruits equally or regularly and sometimes fail to flower and bear fruit under similar conditions, where another fruit tree bears heavily. This failure to fruit may be attributed to unfruitfulness. It is associated with internal and external factors.

Internal factors: These are as follows.