eChapters

ABSTRACT

Trees play a crucial role in maintaining and regenerating soil fertility through the action of their roots and litter. Trees can also improve soil structure, water holding capacity, crop rooting volume and biological activity in soil by providing biomass. Quick growing species, especially of nitrogen fixing trees when combined with herbaceous crops enhance fertility status of the soil through litter contribution and nitrogen fixation. Nitrogen fixing trees and shrubs, grown in agroforestry systems, are capable of fixing about 50-100 Kg N ha^-1yr^-1. Use of agroforestry is also a viable option for enhancing soil organic carbon density. Soil organic carbon sequestration potential in soils of tropical forest ecosystems varies from 100 to 500 Kg C ha^-1 yr^-1. Improving soil organic carbon pool through agroforestry improves soil quality, biomass productivity and mitigates global warming by reducing the atmospheric concentration of greenhouse gases. Nutrient cycling is another way in which trees draw a large portion of nutrients from deeper soil layer and return it to the soil through crown crash, stem flow and litter fall. In a nutshell, for improving the soil quality, ecological balance and sustainability of agro eco systems , agroforestry is one of the best viable alternative land use system.

ABSTRACT

Scattered trees/shrubs in agricultural fields or grazing fields are common features of landscape in arid regions of India. These trees were considered as insurance to the people during drought years. In recent past importance of these trees in such areas had been recognized by the scientific world. Lot of research had been made and is continuing to identify and research the tree-crop combination. This paper reviews the tested agroforestry systems in arid region of country with particular reference to Rajasthan. Economic gains due to technology intervention in agroforestry system is also given.

INTRODUCTION

The people in the arid regions of India, since time immemorial has developed location specific agroforestry systems. The scattered trees / shrubs in the agricultural fields or grazing fields are common features of the landscape. Since the beginning of cultivation the farmers deliberately allow the trees /shrubs to grow with the crops. They have screened the trees / shrubs based on their utility. They have considered that these trees are insurance to them during drought years. These trees provided lean period fodder, fruits, vegetable, timber, fuel, fiber etc. as farmers knew that occurrence of drought is common phenomenon in Rajasthan and due to failure of rains the crops failed to grow or their production is abysmally low. In the recent past efforts have been made to identify existing agroforestry systems for different agro-ecological zones (Malhotra, 1984 ; Harsh et al., 1992 ; Saxena, 1997). Efforts have also been made to study the production systems under each agroforestry systems and also to improve the existing systems through technological interventions (Harsh and Tewari, 2003; Tewari et al., 2004; Harsh et al., 2004).

ABSTRACT

The practice of agroforestry in the hills and mountains of Himachal Pradesh is as old as the hill agriculture itself. Farmers are retaining trees on the farmlands for the multiple benefits they provide. The selection of the trees, their planting pattern and density is chosen in such a way that it had minimum effect on the associated crop. The present paper gives the prevalent agroforestry systems with their components in different agroclimatic zones of Himachal Pradesh along with their management practices. Adoption of landuse practices depends to a large extent on status of the farmer concerned. Paper presents the association between type of farmer and the corresponding agroforestry systems they adopt. Sustainability of agroforestry systems, their role in climate change and social and economic gain of agroforestry systems in hills had also been detailed. A comprehensive list of agroforestry components had also been appended as annexures.

INTRODUCTION

Farmers throughout the Indian Himalayas covering about 16 states partially or fully have nurtured trees on their farms and in the agricultural landscape both for production and protection benefits for millennia. Mountainous region like Himachal Pradesh located in western Himalayan range present wide range of tree growing practices and systems owing to the diverse physiographic and demographic mosaic.

The state is located between 30° 22’ 40” to 33° 12’ 40” N latitude and 75°47’ 55” to 79°4’ 20” E longitude and extends over a geographical area of 55673 km² which is 1.69 per cent of the country’s area and 10.5 per cent of the Himalayan landmass. This land locked state is bordered by Jammu and Kashmir in the north, Punjab and Haryana in the south–west and Uttaranchal in the south–east. In the north–east the state forms the international boundary with the Tibet. Agricultural landscapes are characterized by undulating topography wherein terraced fields are made on medium to steep slopes. Crop fields on sloppy lands are in general 5-10 m wide and 20-30 m long almost conical on both ends and wide in the middle. In valley areas and on lands with gentle to mild slopes (up to 40%) large sloping fields have been developed manually by the farmers where Government has undertaken land consolidation.

ABSTRACT

Madhya Pradesh is declared as mega diversity state in India. It also harbours diversity in human population as 1/4^th of its population is tribal. These tribal people are practicing agroforestry since time immemorial. The state is divided into 11 agro climatic zones. The paper provides the agroforestry systems and species suitable for these zones. The traditional practices and the innovative agroforestry systems developed are also given. Agroforestry systems that are suitable for problematic soil have been briefly discussed. Efforts of different institutes like TFRI, JNKV and projects like TDET, ORP on Agroforestry, AICRP on AF in developing different system and their recommendations are also provided in this paper.

INTRODUCTION

Environment remained in its pristine purity and congeniality till man stayed in the hunting and food gathering stage. But, as he entered in the pastoral age and domesticated animals, he gradually passed from the nomadic stage to settled cultivation. When, he cleared the first patch of earth and upturned the first sod and lifted the first bucket of water, the long story of his interference with environment started. Clearing trees for farming, disturbing the moisture regimes and furrowing the land endangered the phenomenon of erosion leading on to the problem of reducing the soil fertility. At the same time, the art of Agroforestry emerged, though in the most rudimentary fashion, which in varying form and emphasis has continued till today. Coming to recent times, the increasing pressure on land as well as on forests, rising demand for fuel and fodder and finally the requirement of timber for multifarious purposes have strengthen the need of agroforestry as an alternate land use system especially at natural resource conservation front (Singh, 1999). Pathak (2000) opined that agroforestry is a land management system that optimizes the overall land productivity and reduces resources depletion through the utilization of positive interactions between crops-trees-animals in its temporal and spatial dimensions. In this way, agroforestry operates in a given socioeconomic frame work; it is not a static but a dynamic structure.

ABSTRACT

Agroforestry a sustainable land use system being practiced since long back through out the country. A diverse climatic, edaphic, and environmental conditions prevailing in the country has made it possible to practice different kinds of agroforestry systems. The local research organizations and individuals have undertook various studies for the betterment of the local agroforestry systems for getting higher yields to meet the need of food, fodder, fuel wood etc. It was found that Jowar+Teak+Papaya followed by Chilli+Teak+Papaya combination gave more economic returns compared to pure agricultural crop. Casuarina equisetifolia, Grevillea robusta, Dalbergia sissoo and Melia dubia have been found to be suitable for agroforestry systems in dryland. Coffee based agroforestry system and other tree-crop combination tried have been elaborated in this paper.

INTRODUCTION

Agroforestry is a new word for the old practice of growing woody plants with agricultural crops and/or livestock together on the same land. Various experts and scientists working on agroforestry or involved in land use related sciences have defined agroforestry according to their individual understanding of what they call agroforestry.

“Agroforestry is sustainable management system for land that increases total production, combines agricultural crops, tree crops and forest plants and or animals simultaneously or sequentially and applies management practices that are compatible with the cultural patterns of the local population” (Chundawat and Gautham, 1993).

Trees have been used in cropping systems since the beginning of agriculture. Throughout the world, at one period or another in its history, it has been the practice to cultivate tree species and agricultural crops in intimate combination. In the tropics, human beings underwent a transition from hunting/gathering to the use of domesticated plants and livestock. As a part of the process, they cut down trees, cleared the debris by burning and sowed crops in the ash enriched soil. It was the ‘slash-and-burn’ agriculture, a primary forerunner of the present-day agroforestry and a practice that might have originated in the Neolithic period, around 7000 BC.

There are innumerable examples of traditional land-use practices involving combined production of trees and agricultural species on the same piece of land in many parts of the world. Trees were an integral part of these farming systems and they were deliberately retained on farmlands to support agriculture. These practices are now known as agroforestry. However, the ultimate objective of these practices was not tree production but food production.

6.1 PROCESSES IN THE DOMESTICATION TECHNOLOGY

6.1.1 Introduction

The world Agroforestry centre Former international Centre for Research in Agro – forestry (ICRAF) and other home base orgainsation in their programme Africa Humid Tropics Regional programmed are the leader in the science and practice of integrating working trees on small farms and in rural landscapes. In this programme trees that ensure security in food nutrition income, health, shelter and energy and a regenerated environment are domesticated. The mission of this is to increase; diversify and stabilize income, food and health strategies from practicing agroforestry approaches in general domesticating indigenous trees and their products particular.

Definition of Agroforestry

Basically agro forestry is the integration of agriculture forestry and sometimes animal production. This is a measure to maintain soil fertility, stop desertification and soil degradation. Foresters and agriculturalist have long recognized the important of these approached which have been incorporated into forestry law of severe countries. This does not only involve the planting of certain trees in farms but also the protection of certain trees species which are not to be felled or damaged during farming.

Agroforestry is a new name for a set of old practices. The farmers have been practicing agroforestry since ancient times. The general concept of agroforestry is to integrate trees and agriculture so as to create a more diversified landscape, while providing the producers with new environmental and economic benefits. In other words, agroforestry is a method of farming that allows trees and shrubs to grow along with crops and/or livestock, therefore blending agriculture and forestry in the same production system. In fact, man’s association with forest is much older than with agriculture. First man was a food gatherer and hunter in forests. Then he realized that the seeds of the fruits he collected germinated, grew into plants and bore the fruits again and thus man started to cultivate foods. Man’s desire to live in a community created settled agriculture.

Agroforestry is a very old practice, dating back many years. Tropical farmers have long been growing food crops, timber, and livestock in addition to taking advantage of the variety of products that may be obtained from natural wood lots. Indian culture is deeply rooted in its appreciation of trees and forests. The forests gave birth to the greatest aspects of Indian culture. The sages who developed Hindu philosophy resided in forests, living in perfect harmony with the natural world. In fact, trees have been discussed in our ancient literature so much that people were planting trees on their own in addition to crops for agriculture. Maharishi Kashyap’s book ‘Krishishukti’ divides land into multiple categories and designates regions that are suitable for tree planting. Particular sites for planting trees include all wet and dry regions as well as the vicinity of homes, wells, and tanks. However, foresters and farmers, who have historically worked within very strict disciplinary boundaries and focused on producing their favoured commodities - crops, livestock, and trees - used to disregard such integrated production systems that incorporate many disciplines.

Introduction

A number of experts have recognised three different stages in the march of man on the earth. These consist of: (i) When the civilization is dominated by the forests, (ii) When the civilization is overcoming the forest and (iii) When the civilization is dominating obstacles caused by forests. Now a days, Indian Himalayas including that of Jammu and Kashmir is passing through the third stage i.e., to the point of destroying itself in the process.

Deforestation’s relentless march is stripping the Jammu and Kashmir Himalayas bare of its forest cover. From the majestic coniferous forests of Pir Panjal Himalayas to the deciduous and mixed canopy of subtropical forests the story is tragically the same i.e.. the indiscriminate destruction of forests that could turn the state into vast and inhospitable waste land. Hence to sustain and prosper the civilization, the forests must be saved from being further destroyed.

To reduce or to minimize the deforestation, the Social Forestry Project and Agroforestry System came to fore. The primary objective of Social Forestry is to increase supplies of fuel wood and fodder in rural area through plantation on community waste lands, degraded forest lands and on private lands through farm forestry (Patnaik, 1995-96). The latter i.e., Agroforestry is now much more widely used subject than the mere production of wood and food. In the changing scenario of the environmental degradation and ecological imbalance as a result of degradation of the forest resources of the country, agroforestry consists of inviting the prime attention of forests for upliftment of both environment and ecology vis-a-vis to enhance agricultural/horticultural and livestock production. In fact, agroforestry came as a new’ name during the year 1978. Since then, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi, has developed a vast network of agroforestry in all 36 centres of Agroclimatic Zones (Tejwani, 2008). However, Dr Tejwani started working with agroforestry during 1957 on fodder fuel plantations and trees on farm boundaries. Hence, agroforestry must be included in the agriculture.

In agroforestry systems the various components like tree, crop and pasture exist in different proportions and orientations. It is difficult to find out which agroforestry system is the best suited for a given land situation. Similarly, it is to be decided which technologies are required for refinement and improvement of the existing agroforestry practices. But without sufficient knowledge of the existing system in a particular land situation, it is very difficult to set the research priorities for modification and development of this system. Diagnosis and Design (D & D) is a systematic and objective methodology developed by International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) to initiate, monitor and evaluate agroforestry programmes. D & D is based on the philosophy that knowledge of the existing situation (diagnosis) is essential to plan and evaluate (design) meaningful and effective programmes in agroforestry research for development. The methodology plays a strategic role in all the phases of the agroforestry research process. D & D in agroforestry is unique and it has been specially developed for the following purposes.

In agroforestry systems the various components like tree, crop and pasture exist in different proportions and orientations. It is difficult to find out which agroforestry system is the best suited for a given land situation. Similarly, it is to be decided which technologies are required for refinement and improvement of the existing agroforestry practices. But without sufficient knowledge of the existing system in a particular land situation, it is very difficult to set the research priorities for modification and development of this system.

Diagnosis and Design (D & D) is a systematic and objective methodology developed by International Centre for Research in Agroforestry (ICRAF) to initiate, monitor and evaluate agroforestry programmes. D & D is based on the philosophy that knowledge of the existing situation (diagnosis) is essential to plan and evaluate (design) meaningful and effective programmes in agroforestry research for development. The methodology plays a strategic role in all the phases of the agroforestry research process. D & D in agroforestry is unique and it has been specially developed for the following purposes.

Agroforestry is a land use system that involves two or more plant species at least one of which must be a woody perennial. When perennial woody and herbaceous components are grown together on the same piece of land their performance would largely depend on their ability to share various growth resources in a given environmental situation. Due to difference in growth pattern and resource requirement of the components in agroforestry situation, a close interactive relation is obvious. Thus, careful management practices for the components are required to establish a successful agroforestry system. The characteristics of the trees and crops, and their interactions, can be modified with good management practices in order to take advantage of the positive characteristics and minimize the effects of the negative ones. Effective and efficient agroforestry management may be divided into two groups; tree management and agricultural crop management.

Trees have been used in cropping systems since the beginning of agriculture. Throughout the world, at one period or another in its history, it has been the practice to cultivate tree species and agricultural crops in intimate combination. In the tropics, human beings underwent a transition from hunting/gathering to the use of domesticated plants and livestock. As a part of the process, they cut down trees, cleared the debris by burning and sowed crops in the ashenriched soil. It was the ‘slash-and-burn’ agriculture, a primary forerunner of the present-day agroforestry and a practice that might have originated in the Neolithic period, around 7000 BC. There are innumerable examples of traditional land-use practices involving combined production of trees and agricultural species on the same piece of land in many parts of the world. Trees were an integral part of these farming systems and they were deliberately retained on farmlands to support agriculture. These practices are now known as agroforestry. However, the ultimate objective of these practices was not tree production but food production.

Trees have been used in cropping systems since the beginning of agriculture. Throughout the world, at one period or another in its history, it has been the practice to cultivate tree species and agricultural crops in intimate combination. In the tropics, human beings underwent a transition from hunting/gathering to the use of domesticated plants and livestock. As a part of the process, they cut down trees, cleared the debris by burning and sowed crops in the ash-enriched soil. It was the ‘slash-and-burn’ agriculture, a primary forerunner of the present-day agroforestry and a practice that might have originated in the Neolithic period, around 7000 BC.

There are innumerable examples of traditional land-use practices involving combined production of trees and agricultural species on the same piece of land in many parts of the world. Trees were an integral part of these farming systems and they were deliberately retained on farmlands to support agriculture. These practices are now known as agroforestry. However, the ultimate objective of these practices was not tree production but food production.

The words ‘system’, ‘sub-system’ and ‘practice’ are commonly used in agroforestry literature. In a broad sense, a system is defined as a group of associated elements forming a unified whole and working together in a well defined regular relation for a common goal. An agroforestry system refers to a type of agroforestry land-use that extends over a locality to the extent of forming a land utilization type of the locality. Sub-system and practice are lower-order terms in the hierarchy with lesser magnitudes of role, content and complexity. However, these terms are used loosely, and almost synonymously. Classification of agroforestry systems is necessary in order to understand and provide a practical framework for evaluating systems and developing action plans for their improvement. Any classification scheme should satisfy the following criteria (Nair, 2008).

Agroforestry is a new name for a set of old practices. The farmers have been practicing agroforestry since ancient times. The general concept of agroforestry is to integrate trees and agriculture so as to create a more diversified landscape, while providing the producers with new environmental and economic benefits. In other words, agroforestry is a method of farming that allows trees and shrubs to grow along with crops and/or livestock, therefore blending agriculture and forestry in the same production system. This relatively young science was brought from the realm of indigenous knowledge into the forefront of agricultural research four decades ago and was promoted widely as a sustainability-enhancing practice that combines the best attributes of both forestry and agriculture.

1. Taungya is a method of raising forest plantation in combination with_____________. (Agricultural crops)

2. Buffer strips left along streams to reduce erosion and provide shade for fish, which are known as _____________. (Streamside Management Zone, SMZ)

3. Agroforestry system journal is published in_____________. (Netherland)

4. Indian journal of agroforestry is a_____________journal. (Quarterly)

5. Taungya was developed by_____________. (Brandis)

6. The interaction in which both the member of the community in an ecosystem are benefitted is known as_____________. (Mutualism)

7. The tendency of neighbouring plants to utilize the same quantum of light, mineral nutrients and space is known as_____________. (Competition)

8. Allelopathy is the best example of_____________. (Amensalism)

9. D & D approach was developed by_____________. (ICRAF)

10. _____________design is followed in greenhouse experiments. (RBD)