eChapters

1.0 INTRODUCTION

“Biological control is the reduction of the amount of inoculum or disease producing activity of a pathogen  or parasite  in its active or dormant state, by one or more organisms, accomplished naturally or through manipulation of the environment, host or antagonist or by mass introduction of one or more antagonists ” (Baker & Cook 1974). The biological world is a vast interacting network of living organisms in a state of dynamic equilibrium, reflecting changes in their physical environment and their relations to each other. Organisms exhibit many type of interactions in the process of achieving biological balance.  An organism may exert no effect on another or it may stimulate or inhibit the growth or development of the associate, it may stimulate or inhibit the formation of resting spores of the associate or it may enforce dormancy or cause lysis of the associate (Cooke & Baker, 1983).

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Infestation by insect pests is a major factor responsible for the low productivity of spice crops in India. Spice crops such as black pepper (Piper nigrum L.), cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton), ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) and turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) are infested by many species of insect pests, some of which cause severe crop losses. Adoption of integrated pest management (IPM) schedules in which biological control forms a major component is more relevant in these crops since excessive use of insecticides could lead to pesticide residues in the produce and other ecological hazards. Spices are high-value and export-oriented in nature and pesticide residues are the most important non-tariff barriers on trade in these produces. There has been a renewed interest during the past decade in developing environment–friendly crop management schedules in sustainable agriculture including spice crops, reflecting the increasing concern over pesticide misuse.

1.0. INTRODUCTION

The plant nutrient cycling depends on micro organisms that constitute major components of the biosphere. Although less than one per cent is cultured, a tremendous diversity exists in their populations. Transformation of nutrients from soil to plants is brought about by soil microorganisms. Latest molecular techniques enable scientists to understand and appreciate the diversity and help to utilize the beneficial effects of microbial diversity for increased productivity. Among soil organisms intense activity is found in and around rhizosphere of plants because of the presence of the secreted nutrients such as carbohydrates, amino acids and other cellular components present at the growing tip of roots. These root colonizing micro organism form symbiotic, associative, or parasitic relationship with the plants. These organisms have evolved mechanisms to occupy and reside in the specialized niche. These mechanisms are often utilized both for growth enhancement and disease suppression. The host also plays an important role in selecting its own microflora for the rhizosphere similar to the probiotic microflora of human gastrointestinal tract (Haas and Keel 2003).

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Soil fertility can be considered to be a measure of the soil’s ability to sustain satisfactory crop growth, both in the short and longer-term. Organic farming recognizes the soil as being central to a sustainable farming system. It could be argued that organically managed soils require a higher level of baseline fertility because shortfalls cannot be made up by applications of soluble fertilizers. Soil fertility is determined by a set of interactions between the physical and chemical environments of the system and by biological activity. Organic matter is linked intrinsically to soil fertility, because it is important in maintaining good soil physical conditions (e.g. soil structure, aeration and water holding capacity) and is an important nutrient reserve. Organic matter contains most of the soil reserve of N and large proportions of other nutrients such as phosphorus and sulphur.

1.1 Spice – definition and uses

Spice is defined as “a strongly flavoured or aromatic substance of vegetable origin, obtained from tropical plants, commonly used as a condiment”. A spice is a dried seed, fruit, root, rhizome, bark or vegetative substance or flower bud used in nutritionally insignificant quantities as a food additive for the purpose of flavoring. Spices are distinguished from herbs, which are leafy, green plant parts used for flavoring purposes. Herbs, such as basil or oregano, may be used fresh, and are commonly chopped into smaller pieces; spices, however, are dried and usually ground into a powder (http://www.reference.com/browse/wiki/Spice). American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) defines spices as “any dried plant product used primarily for seasoning purposes”. Included are tropical aromatics (pepper, cinnamon, cloves, etc.), leafy herbs (basil, oregano, marjoram, etc.), spice seeds (sesame, poppy, mustard, etc.) and dehydrated vegetables (onions, garlic, etc.) (http://www.astaspice.org/spice/frame_spice.htm). Many spices have other uses like food preservation, medicine, religious rituals, cosmetics, and perfumery or as vegetables.

Tea is the most important non-alcoholic beverage worldwide gaining further popularity as an important ‘health drink’. It is consumed as a morning drink by 2/3^rd of world population. Tea was used initially as a medicine and subsequently as beverage and now has proven to be a potential raw material for pharmaceutical industry. Tea is mainly consumed in the form of ‘fermented tea’ or ‘black tea’, ‘non-fermented’ or ‘green tea’ and semi-fermented or ‘oolong tea’ are also popular in Japan and China. Green leaves are also used as vegetables such as ‘leppet tea’ in Burma and ‘meing tea’ in Thailand.

Natural rubber, cis-l,4 polyisoprene, produced in the milky cytoplasm (latex) of specialized cells called laticifers in certain plants is one of most important biological macromolecules, which is used as an industrial raw material for the manufacture of a variety of products. Natural rubber is found in the latex of over 2000 species of plants belonging to 311 genera under 79 families. However, Hevea brasiliensis, also known as Para rubber tree after the Brazilian port of Para, is the only commercial source of natural rubber mainly because of its abundance in latex, quality and convenience of harvesting. Hevea was first used as a source of rubber by the French.

Palmyra (Borassus flabellifer L.) is a tropical dioecious palm adapted to arid zone tracts. Though it is a versatile plant which yields many edible and non-edible products it is a less exploited species. It is used for sap, fruit, seed, leaf and fiber and timber products. From nutritional point of view, fruit pulp and seed shoot flour are the most important.Successful promotion of these as foods for general consumption depends on subjecting the fruit pulp to a debittering process, and the seed shoot flour, to initial detoxification processes (Thabrew and Jansz, 2004). Palmyra palms are the most numerous palms in the world after coconut palm (Fox, 1977). Despite this, they are the least studied of all the palms.

The oil palm (Elaeis guineensis Jacq.) is recognised as the cheapest edible oil-yielding crop and has become one of the major oil crops in the world. The most productive oil-bearing crop, oil palm yields about three times the oil yield of coconut, seven times that of rapeseed, and ten times that of soybean. In terms of world production, palm oil maintains second place after soybean as a source of vegetable oil and has overtaken other crops such as rapeseed, sunflower, groundnut, and cottonseed. Under good agricultural management, a hectare of oil palm yields 5 to 7 tonnes of oil / year (Henson, 1991). The crop is unique in producing 2 distinct types of oil- palm oil and palm kernel oil- used for culinary and industrial purposes. Being rich in b-carotene, palm oil contributes substantially to nutritional and energy requirements of masses.

Coffee (Coffea species) occupies a pride of place, in the international trade of commodities, next to petroleum in trade volume and money value. Coffee is also the second important popular beverage for its aroma and mild stimulant action. Its dried beans are roasted, ground and brewed to make a stimulating & refreshing beverage. Its production forms the backbone of more than 60 developing nations. Use of coffee has evolved from original chewing of leaves and beans of the plant to relieve pain, hunger and fatigue to the present more sophisticated uses, like espresso and decaffeinated coffees. Its use was first discovered in Arabia around mid-15th century.

Coconut is the most beautiful and useful of palms known to mankind. Coconut is unique, producing a host of products and by products with distinctive applications at home and in industry. It is essentially an oil seed crop providing all amenities for human life, which include food, energetic beverage, medicine, fibre, wood, shell and a variety of raw materials for production of array of products of commercial importance. In view of its versatile uses and affinity to Indian culture, it is rightly called the “tree of heaven” or “Kalpavriksha”.

Cocoa (Theobroma cacao L.) is the third important beverage crop grown for its seeds known as beans, used mainly in chocolate industry. It is the source of cocoa butter and cocoa mass.

Cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.) is an export-oriented crop grown for its nuts, a true drupe. Often referred as ‘wonder nut’, it is highly delicious and nutritive. Its nutritional composition compares well with almond, hazel nut and walnut. It is a zero-cholesterol nut with high content of unsaturated fatty acids, proteins and carbohydrates with a right combination of amino acids, vitamins and minerals. Kernels extracted from nuts are often consumed as such or used in confectionery items and various kinds of dishes. Kernel oil of pale yellow colour is used in pharmaceutical and cosmetic industries. Cashew nut shell liquid (CNSL) extracted from its shell has many industrial applications - for making paints, resins, flame-retardants, etc. Testa covering the kernel, rich in tannin, can be an acceptable substitute for wattle bark tannin in leather industry. Cashew apple, the pseudo-fruit, is rich in vitamin C. It is used to cure scurvy, diarrhea, uterine complaints and dropsy.

Arecanut palm (Areca catechu L.) is the source of common masticatory nut, popularly known as arecanut, betelnut, or supari. It is used extensively in India by all sections of people as masticatory, and is an essential requisite for several religious and social ceremonies.

Commercial crops include a variety of high value plantation crops, which play a vital role in the agricultural economy and export trade of many developing and developed countries (Table 1). Tea, coffee, cocoa, rubber, coconut, arecanut, oil palm, cashew, palmyra and cardamom are the major crops grown on a plantation scale. These crops are perennial in nature and the cultivation is labour intensive, generating considerable employment opportunity during on farm operations and off farm processing activities. The most obvious characteristic is that plantations are monocultures; the same species occupying large contiguous area usually in even aged stands. Exceptions are coconut, arecanut, cocoa and coffee, which are grown either as mono crop or as multiple crops. These crops are grown in humid tropics, mainly between 20°N and 20°S of equator in an area of 35.7 million ha yielding about 74.4 million tonnes of produce and contributing US $ 11 billion to global trade during 2002.

Food prices have risen 6% in the last six months. But it is expected to rise further as expensive energy, squeezed supplies and volatile weather take a combined toll. The biggest factor pushing prices is the cost of producing and marketing crops. Several factors will make farming more expensive in the coming months. The first variable is weather. Preliminary forecasts by a few foreign and private Indian meteorologists say India could have a below-normal monsoon because a weather phenomenon called El Nino is warming the Pacific Ocean. El Nino usually affects monsoon winds headed for India. Forecasters say monsoon might arrive on time but could falter during August-September, especially in the north.

All over the world, when people get richer their life style change and they consume more animal protein, especially meat. We may add value by good genetics and know how in farm and feed management. There would be huge demand for poultry products and meat in coming years in India as per capita income of middle class people is gradually increasing and for that production of meat and meat products is required to be increased to meet the demand. Meat of goat, buffalo chicken are generally sold in India. Marketing of meat and meat products, chicken and poultry products such as eggs are the main challenges for the new farmers as there is no ready market in India. Recently there is huge demand of Chicken in Northern India. The initial problem faced by farmers is getting the special chicken feed for the different age groups. There is no well equipped dedicated slaughter house available in every city. New technology for animal slaughter is required so that all parts of animal are used properly without losing valuable protein. The idea should be to use innovated technology to optimize the profits in the chain.

Liquid milk is the cheapest form of milk whereas value added products like yoghurt and paneer, already popular in India are ways to earn a higher income with some raw materials. Farms should focus on dairy herd improvement, herd management etc. Milk and dairy products are always very helpful to farmers for a constant source of income besides their regular farm products. They do not required to expend extra for their feeding if the number of cattle are less. With slight extra care they can earn enough to meet their daily expenses. Cows, buffalo, all the milk giving animals are easy to care.

The first use of rubber was by the Olmecs, who centuries later passed on the knowledge of natural latex from the Hevea tree in 1600 BC to the ancient Mayans. They boiled the harvested latex to make a ball for a Mesoamerican ballgame.

Fats and oils are one of the five essential ingredients of human diet. The four others are protein, carbohydrates, minerals, and vitamins. In balanced diet, the requirement of oils and fats per person per day is around 35 gm. In India, the major source of oils and fats is of vegetable origin; butter from animal milk also serves as a fat, though. In the nine major oilseeds, which are groundnut, rapseed /mustered seed, soya been, seasam seeds, sun flower seed niger seed, castor seed and linseed, out of these   seven are essentially edible. Among these seven, by far the most important are groundnut,  rapeseed/mustard seed, and soya bean. These three edible oilseeds account for a little over 80% of-the-total production of nine oilseeds, which include even two non-edible oilseeds, namely castor seed and linseed. As a matter of fact, edible oilseeds as such contribute nearly 95% to the total production of all cultivated oilseeds together.