eChapters

Introduction

COVID-19, a worldwide pandemic, addresses a deflationary stun for the worldwide economy. The outbreak of coronavirus has had a significant impact on public health worldwide and all stages of various industries’ supply chain and value chain. The 2019 novel coronavirus (2019-nCoV) or the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is rapidly spreading from its origin in Wuhan City of Hubei Province of China to the rest of the world. The infection began in bats and was communicated to people by inhalation or contact with infected droplets, and its infection time frame goes from 2 to 14 days. Primary manifestations in hospitalized patients with COVID-19 include fever (98%), cough/hack (76%), and myalgia or weakness (44%). Severe complications include acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), RNAemia, acute cardiac injury, and multiple organ failure. However, exaggerated immune responses may lead to Cytokine Storm. Cytokine storm syndrome includes ARDS, shock, and multi-organ failure (Zheng et al., 2020). Many people are asymptomatic also, and the severity of this disease varies from person to person. The fatality rate is estimated to range from 2 to 3%. Typical/low white cell checks can analyze it with raised C-responsive protein (CRP), periodic modernized tomographic chest examination. The infection spreads quicker than its two predecessors, the SARS-CoV and Middle East respiratory disorder Covid (MERS-CoV); however, it has lower casualty. The worldwide effect of this new scourge is yet questionable (Singhal, T. (2020).

Introduction

Enzymes are globular proteins that act as biological catalysts. They are produced by living cells to bring about specific biochemical reactions. Digestive enzymes catalyze the degradative reactions by which substrates (i.e., feedstuffs) are digested into their chemical components (e.g., simple sugars, amino acids, fatty acids) which in turn, are used for different body functions. Different enzymes are utilized for the complete digestion of complex feed. The enzymes are being used in the feeding industry from last several decades. Various digestive enzymes have been studied for use as feed additives to enhance animal performance They are commonly used to improve the nutritive value of feeds for non-ruminants (especially, poultry and swine). They are not routinely used in adult ruminant diets because the fibrolytic activity within the rumen environment is normally very high, and it is assumed that exogenous enzymes cannot survive proteolysis in the rumen (Kopency et al., 1987). Forages are the main feed component that serve as the major source of energy available to the animal in ruminant production system. However, due to slow or incomplete digestion of fibrous substrates only 10 to 35% of energy intake is available as net energy that significantly limits livestock performance and profits in production systems. To improve the ruminal fibre degradability many strategies have been developed to stimulate the digestion of the fibrous components in ruminant feeds. That includes, use of various feed additives which stimulates fiber digestion, physical and chemical processing of feeds in order to enhance the rate and extent of fiber digestion. However, the use of “natural” product to enhance production efficiency is highly recommended that can potentially play some role in replacing performance benefits vacated by antibiotics and hormones. Enzymes are proteins that are ultimately digested or excreted by the animal, leaving no residues in products, which was a major drawback in the use of antibiotics and hormones.

Abstract

The present study was conducted to develop ready to eat extruded snack food based on germinated flour of wheat, Bengal gram and green gram. A Central Composite Rotatable Design (CCRD) for five variables at five levels was used for experimental combinations and optimization of the process parameters. Experimental design with green gram flour (5 to 20%) and bengal gram flour (1535%) in wheat flour, moisture content (14-18%), screw speed (200-300 rpm) and barrel temperature (126-134°C) as independent variables having 32 different combinations of snack formulations that were studied using response surface methodology to investigate the effect of these variables on product responses (Lateral expansion, bulk density, Water absorption index, water solubility index and sensory characteristics). Sensory analysis was carried out of all extrudates for texture, color and overall acceptability. Multiple regression equations were obtained to describe the effects of each variable on product responses. The optimum operating conditions for development of germinated wheat, green gram and Bengal gram flour extrudate were 132°C of barrel temperature, 275 rpm of screw speed, 17 % offeed moisture, 6.5% of green gram flour and 23.1% of Bengal gram flour. The responses predicted by the software for these optimum process conditions resulted lateral expansion of 169.59%, bulk density, 0.263g/cm³; water solubility index, 19.08; water absoption index, 13.88g/g; and overall acceptability value of 7.38.

Animal organs and glands play a crucial role in both nutrition and medicine. These organs encompass the brain, heart, liver, lungs, spleen, tongue, pancreas, udder, stomach, uterus, testes, thymus, kidneys, parathyroid, adrenal glands, and ovaries. Some of these are consumed as food, while others find application in medical practices. Glands, constituting approximately 0.28% of an animal’s total weight, are regarded as valuable by-products of meat production and are increasingly utilized in contemporary medicine for the extraction of beneficial substances. The secretions from both endocrine and exocrine glands are essential for the growth and functioning of the body, with hormones derived from these glands being employed to address deficiencies and serve as therapeutic agents.
1. Human consumption: The majority of glands are ingested alongside meat; however, in the case of cattle and buffalo, ovaries and testes are typically discarded, while other glands are consumed. In smaller animals, it is common to eat all glands with the exception of the ovaries. The liver is especially prized for its rich nutritional profile, being abundant in vitamins A, D, and B complex, which are advantageous for conditions such as poor vision, bone development, and anaemia.
2. Medicinal uses: Glands are responsible for producing hormones that offer significant medicinal advantages, including the treatment of anaemia, diabetes, and various other health issues. They also contribute to the development of secondary sexual characteristics in both males and females. Extracts derived from these glands are invaluable for restoring hormonal deficiencies within the body. The incorporation of animal glands into pharmaceutical manufacturing represents a notable advancement in modern science. In Western nations, there has been a
concentrated effort on the efficient collection and utilization of these glands, acknowledging their economic significance for slaughterhouses and the meatpacking sector.

The intestines of domesticated animals, which are a byproduct of slaughterhouses, are employed in numerous applications. Intestines that function as food containers are referred to casings. Non-consumable uses encompass catgut, strings for musical instruments and rackets, along with various other specialized applications. Additionally, intestines can be ingested following meticulous cleaning and cooking with spices. Among these applications, sausage casings yield the highest profit. Different nations exhibit distinct preferences for sausages, and these preferences frequently determine the varieties of casings utilized.
In addition to intestines, casings can also be sourced from weasands (oesophagus), urinary bladders, stomachs, and rectums. Although artificial casings made from plastic materials and hydro-cellulose are prevalent in Western nations, natural animal casings continue to be in high demand due to their distinctive properties. Natural casings, which are obtained from the intestines or other parts of animals such as sheep, pigs, or cows, undergo processing to become edible and are utilized in the production of sausages and other processed meats. They are esteemed for their elasticity, enabling them to conform to the shape of the sausage filling, and they play a crucial role in enhancing the flavour and texture of the final product. Natural casings, are frequently favored for traditional or artisanal sausages because of their authentic origin and their capacity to improve the taste and visual appeal of the sausages.

Abstract

Agricultural practices prior to the eighteenth century were completely dependent on crop landraces and their mixtures. The knowledge of plant genetics and its application to crop improvement programmes led to increase the production potential of agriculture. Contrary to this, the wonders of crop improvement have resulted in the erosion of genetic diversity of many crops in farmers’ fields, including wheat, due to the replacement of landraces and farmers’ old cultivars with modern high-yielding cultivars.

Wheat is cultivated over an area of 216.6 million hectare globally and the production is 674.9 million tons. The seven largest producers of wheat are China, India, the Russian Federation, the USA, France, Turkey and Canada. During 2012-13, India produced 92.46 million tons of wheat from 29.65m ha area with productivity of 31.19q/ha (4th Advance Estimates, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Government of India). Three wheat species namely, T. aestivum L., T. durumDesf. and T. dicoccumSchubl are grown in India as commercial crops covering 95, 4 and 1 percent area, respectively. The cultivation of T. dicoccumis confined largely to the regions of Karnataka and Maharashtra.

1. Introduction

Plant is probably the greatest gift of nature. Plants provide us with food, cloth, house, papers and many others. Some of the plants have medicinal values and are known as ‘medicinal plants’. Our ancestors used these plants not only for protection from diseases but also for the treatment of several ailments. China has the highest number of the medicinal plants used (about 11,500 species) followed by India (about 7500 species). People of other countries also use medicinal plants in varying amount (Rafieian-Kopaei, 2013). Tradition is still going on. It is reported that even today 80% of the world population relies on medicinal plants in their medication (Hamilton, 2004). Few plants secrete essential oils full of aroma and are called ‘aromatic plants’. These plants are being utilized in industry for the production of essence and many other products. Medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs), therefore, are in continuous use from past to present. In future also there will be tremendous scope of utilization of MAPs in drug discovery, aromatherapy, as cosmeceuticals, nutraceuticals as well as in animal husbandry. Present review will focus utilization of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) in past and present and its possible prospect in future.

Introduction

Whey is the serum or watery part of the milk that remains after separation of curd that result from the acid or proteolytic enzyme mediated co-agulation of milk. It is major by product of dairy industries manufacturing products like channa, paneer, cheese and chakka (Sharma and Bhatia, 1999).The current world production of whey is estimated at about 165 million tones, in that cheese whey accounts for nearly 95 % of total whey. In India near about one million tonne of whey is annually derived, in that major source of whey is from the production of channa, paneer and shrikhand production. This is mostly thrown away as a waste which creates environmental pollution, also in that way about 70, 000 tonnes of Nutritious solids are lost (Puranik, 1999).

A. Answer the following questions:

1.    What is NPN substances?

Ans: Feedstuffs which contain nitrogen in the form other than protein or peptides aretermed as non-protein nitrogen (NPN).

2.    What is liquid diet?

Ans: Liquid molasses containing 2-3% of uniformly mixed urea fortified with minerals andvitaminsis named as ‘liquiddiet’.

3.    Name few amides.

Ans. Urea (46.6% N) and Biuret (35%N)

4.    Name few amines:

Ans. Histamine from Histidine, Tryptamine from Tryptophan, Tyramine from Tyrosine, Betaine from Sugar beet pulp.

5.    Name few alkaloids.

The poultry industry generates by-products that encompass all materials derived from farms and processing facilities that are not intended for human consumption. These by-products can be classified as either edible or inedible. The edible by-products primarily consist of tissues and bones extracted from poultry carcasses. Conversely, inedible by-products comprise hatchery waste, which includes infertile eggs, deceased embryos, dead chicks, and eggshells, as well as feathers, blood, offal, fat, and manure. These by-products are typically divided into three categories:
1. By-products from the production phase, which consist of litter and manure sourced from the farm.
2. By-products from hatcheries which include materials originating from the hatchery, such as the shells of hatched eggs, dead embryos, infertile eggs, and deceased chicks.
3. By-products from the poultry processing plant, which encompass blood, feathers, offal (including feet, heads, and intestinal tracts), condemned birds etc.
1. By-products from the production phase: Poultry litter and manure from caged layers are extensively utilized as a protein supplement in the diets of both poultry and livestock. Following sterilization and dehydration, poultry manure can be integrated into feed, containing approximately 27-29% protein. It can be incorporated into the diets of broilers at levels of up to 20% and layers at 25%. In addition to their application in animal feed, poultry manure and litter are valuable as a ‘surface dressing’ for agricultural fields. They function not only as effective fertilizers but also improve soil texture. One ton of deep litter yields approximately 29.48 kg of nitrogen (equivalent to 136.08 to 147.42 kg of ammonium sulphate), 20.41 kg of phosphorus (equivalent to 113.40 to 136.08 kg of ordinary superphosphate), and 20.41 kg of potash (equivalent to 45.34 kg of potassium), along with 6.80 kg of magnesium, 6.80 kg of sodium, and 27.21 kg of calcium. Furthermore, poultry manure is rich in trace elements such as boron, copper, iron, sulphur, and zinc.

12.1 Introduction

Performance of an orchard mostly depends on the availability and quality of land and water resources and their management in fruit production. Before taking a decision on all the other possible alternatives under consideration, it is important to undertake feasibility study of the available resources to the orchard management. Other conditions in the growing environment, such as climate and weather conditions, disease and pest management and other factors affecting crop growth also affect production. With ever increasing population in India, today the major problem confronted in fruit cultivation is to improve or at least sustain the production to meet ever increasing demand for fresh or processed fruits. Fruit production can vary widely in response to management of available resources. India cannot afford to mismanage its natural resources (Sharma, 2012). Therefore, judicious utilization of available resources should be done. The following resource constraints are required to be judiciously handled in the management of fruit orchards:

1. Land and Soil management
2. Irrigation water management
3. Solar radiation management

Continuous vegetable cultivation year round in the limited available land, without adopting crop rotation practices induces stress, which leads to low vegetable crop productivity. These conditions apart from building up soil-borne pathogens will also lead to other deleterious factors such as temperature extremes, flooding, drought, salinity, heavy metal contamination, insufficient nutrient uptake, soil pH stress, etc. causing severe crop loss. To overcome these abiotic stress conditions, grafting is an environmentally friendly technique for reducing losses in production in solanaceous and cucurbitaceous vegetable crops. The cultivated area of grafted Solanaceae and Cucurbitaceae has increased tremendously in recent years because the objective of grafting has been greatly expanded (Lee et al., 2010) to reduce infections by soil-borne pathogens and to enhance the tolerance against abiotic stresses.

Introduction

Fish and shellfish constitute an important component of global nutrition. Fish protein is an essential source of nutrients for many people, especially in developing countries. Health benefits of fish oil in preventing heart attack and other cardiovascular diseases are well appreciated. Mounting evidences suggest that the benefits of fish consumption are not limited to the well-known effects of fish oil alone. Fish is also a rich source of protein containing all essential amino acids, which is required for the body maintenance and muscular build-up. The protein content in most of the raw finfish meat is in the range of 17 to 22% (g per 100 g), while the cooked portions of some fish such as tuna may have as high as 30% protein. The amino acid score of fish protein compares well with that of whole egg protein, which is considered as a standard protein source. Fish is also rich in the non-protein amino acid - taurine, which has a unique role in neurotransmission. Apart from nutritional properties, fish proteins also possess a number of functional properties such as emulsifying, foaming, gel forming, water binding and fat binding properties, which are important in product formulations. These functional properties are mainly attributed to the major meaning myofibrillar proteins, actin and myosin.

During the processing of fish only the fillets are generally retained while the bulk of product (up to 66%) is discarded. About 30% of the total fish weight remains as waste in the form of skins and bones during preparation of fish fillets. This waste is an excellent raw material for the preparation of high value products including protein foods. The utilization of fish wastes help to eliminate harmful environmental aspects and improve quality in fish processing. Skin and bone are sources of high collagen content. The average quantity of waste generated during fish and shellfish processing operations (based on average annual marine landing data) is indicated in Table 1.

The commercial aquaculture for crustaceans in India has become a huge success due to the introduction of new species, the improved hatchery production of seeds, scientific management of culture practices and the availability of good quality feed and other input. Introduction of new species like Letopenaeus vennamei has resulted in increased yield and productivity. The farming of this species has already been established in coastal Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu and gaining momentum in Kerala and other states.

Similarly, farmers in both coastal and land locked States have gone for large scale farming of Giant Freshwater Prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) popularly called “Scampi” which is having high demand in both domestic and international markets. In order to meet the raw material requirement of large number of processing units established for export and also to meet the domestic demand. The state of Andhra Pradesh accounts for more than 50 per cent of the cultured Scampi production and also in terms of area under culture. During the year 2013-14 the estimated production of L. vannamei was 406018 tons whereas the black tiger export of cultured prawn from the country was to the tune of 41947 tons and that of scampi, it was 1401 tons (MPEDA 2008).

Industrial processing of prawn results in huge quantities of waste in the form of head and shell. Since the exported shrimp products are mainly of peeled items, the shell waste produced is quite high. The head and shell constitute nearly 60% by weight of the whole prawn depending on the species and size. In India its availability is estimated to be 100,000 tonnes annually and it is the single largest fishery waste of the country. Crab shell and squilla are other important raw materials available from marine sector.

Fat
• Utmost significant slaughterhouse byproduct is fat obtained from intestines, kidneys, channel and other offals
• Edible ox fat is rendered and the obtained product is called premier jus (higher grade fat) which is differentiated into oleo oil and oleo stearin
• If all edible ox fat is rendered, it is called dripping and it used for human consumption
• Inedible fat is used for soap manufacturing
• The highest value fat from pig is recovered from peritoneal lining (leaf fat), and the subsequent highest value recovered from back fat, mesentery and omentum
• Sheep fat is separated into oleo oil and oleo stearin because of its strong flavour
• Mutton fat is harder and its stearin content is more than ox or pig and therefore, it is applied on the top of meat paste glass jar as a protective layer
Rendering of edible fat
Three principal procedure of rendering of edible fat are:
i. Wet rendering
ii. Dry rendering
iii. Continuous low-temperature rendering

11.1 Introduction

Fermented foods are the result of the activity of a few specialized types of micro-organisms among the thousands of species known to mankind. Success of such processes is depended upon the control of environmental conditions ensuring the growth of the desired microbial species and inhibition of others. The fermentation can be broadly defined as the process in which the carbohydrate or like compounds are broken down, under anaerobic or aerobic conditions [171]. The basic role of micro-organisms is to breakdown the organic compounds to get energy for their metabolic activities. From ancient times, people all over the world have developed traditional processes for production of alcoholic beverages (wine) either from natural sugar such as in wine or by degrading the starchy materials (beer). Fruit wines referred to as ‘Soma’ in our ancient scriptures have been part of food of man and were used as medicine, might have originated accidentally (transformation of fruit juice beverages having exhilarating or stimulating properties). Wines are made principally from fruits like grape or extract of other fruits of various types (table wine, sparkling wine, dessert, aperitif or vermouth and pop wines) while the beers are prepared from grains like barley, rice and corn. The principal carbohydrate in grain is starch which can not be fermented directly. This process is brought about by starch splitting enzymes by germinating the grains followed by drying and storage until needed. Distillation of beer produces a variety of liquors (whisky, rum, gin, vodka), while that of wine produces the brandy. Besides, the improvement in the raw material selection, fermentation conditions and techniques, a lot of waste material is generated during fermentation process in the industries. Nevertheless, the food based industries are significant contributors to the economy of the many countries of the world (Fig 1). The global market value of food fermentation based industries is estimated to be around 250 million US dollars. Interestingly, more than 10% of this accounts for alcoholic beverages (Fig 2) with projected increase of US$ 27 billions in 1989 to 40 billions in 1990 [93,123,123,129].

1. INTRODUCTION

Wild fruits are highly nutritious and contain vitamins, carbohydrates, protein and minerals in higher quantity than majority of other common cultivated fruits. They are also a rich source of several bioactive substances, compared to the cultivated fruits. In India,these wild fruit trees grow abundantly across an altitudinal gradient of Himalaya and the majority of them bear fruits during summer. Fruit varieties are consumed by the local inhabitants of the region. At the same time, there are numerous under exploited species of wild fruits having high potential for exploitation viz., Bael (Aegle marmelos CL.), Berberis asiatica DC, Seabuckthorn (Hippophae sp.,) Rubus sp., Prunus armeniaca L., Karonda (Carissa carandas L.) Bitter Almond (Prunus amygdalus Batsch Smith), Feijoa sp. Among the wild fruits, Hippophae sp.was found to be economically efficient, followed by Aegle marmelos, Rubus ellipticus Smith, respectively. Wild apricot (Prunus armeniaca L.), a semi-domesticated and less utilized fruit of the higher Himalaya, provides better economic returns on an annual basis. Attempts have been made to utilize these wild fruits as a source of income, particularly for poor rural inhabitants and unemployed youths of the region by making a variety of edible products such as jam, jelly, juice, squash, sauce, wine etc. Here in this article, production of wine, vermouth and brandy from wild fruits would be focused. But before discussing preparation of wine and brandy in detail, we shall be describing the general process of wine and brandy making first, then the products from the specific wild fruits.

Introduction

A concept focused on crop and livestock production with minimal environmental impact has emerged as a result of the paradigm shift in Indian agriculture from traditional to sustainable agriculture. This concept also supports the farm economy and helps farmers improve their tactics and quality of life. This has sparked farmers’ interest in learning traditional technology skills that draw on local knowledge that people have acquired from their ancestors to address issues in agriculture and activities associated with natural processes. Indigenous Technical Knowledge (ITK), which is a component of using natural products to address agricultural problems and integrate activities, has attracted interest since the concept of sustainable agriculture began to emerge in the Indian state of agriculture in the late 1980s. ITK is regional knowledge unique to a particular culture or community.

At the beginning of the 21st century, the world is facing a number of major global challenges. On the development side one of these challenges is the establishment of sustainability. In the context of agricultural development, a new agenda has been set to achieve the goals of producing and disseminating economically viable, socially acceptable and environmentally sound technologies that are geographically sound. , even local agricultural schools cannot teach such knowledge because of its size and diversity (Pereira, 1993).

1. Introduction
Global food insecurity is a prominent concern today, and this concern continues to haunt with exponential population growth, coupled with significant climate changes. The global population has increased at a rapid rate to around 8 billion in number which has led to a corresponding rise in food demand worldwide (UNFPA, 2023). Consequently, ensuring ample crop production has emerged as a primary objective for the entire world. According to World Bank (2023), an important strategy to bring down extreme poverty levels, fostering shared prosperity and providing sustainability for the expected population rise of 9.7 billion is agricultural development by 2050. Nevertheless, optimizing the productivity of a crop is never an easy task. Crop plants continuously face exposure to different abiotic and/or biotic factors, which retard growth and development processes ensuing their reduced productivity and diminished crop quality. Agricultural crops are vulnerable to biotic stresses such as bacteria, nematodes, fungi and herbivores. In addition to biotic factors, these challenges are further exacerbated by abiotic stresses like flooding/waterlogging, drought, temperature variations, soil salinity/alkalinity, heavy metals, nutrient deficiencies and CO2. They have a detrimental impact on crop at different stages of plant growth, ranging from entire plant to tissue and sub-cellular structures. Moreover, the abiotic stressors cause a direct impact on crops by inducing protein denaturation and aggregation, while also increasing the fluidity of membrane lipids (Kumari, 2022). According to Oshunsanya et al. (2019) major abiotic stresses i.e. extreme temperatures, drought, and nutrient deficiency/toxicity, contributes to significant annual crop yield losses ranging from 51-82% worldwide. On the other hand, yield penalties due to waterlogging merely is supposed to increase from 3–11% today to around 10–20% by 2080 (Liu et al., 2023). Daryanto et al. (2016) reviewed the published literatures from 1980-2015 and reported global yield reductions due to drought estimating around 21 % and 40%, respectively in wheat and maize.

Introduction

As per the International Society of Horticultural Sciences (ISHS), horticulture encompasses the cultivation of various crops in limited spaces, including fruits, vegetables, flower, tree, aromatic and medicinal plants. Horticultural products encompass all items, whether in their raw or processed form, that have originated from horticultural crops and practices. The main sectors of horticultural science includes a large number of products like fruits from trees vines and bushes; nuts from perennial trees and bushes; fruits, roots, shoots stems, leaves, and flowers of annual vegetable crops; foliage of aromatic plants and leaves, bark, seeds and roots of medicinal plants and trees. Additionally horticultural products include cut flowers, potted ornamental plants, and bedding plants, which can be annual or perennial, along with trees, shrubs turf, and ornamental grasses cultivated in nurseries for landscaping purposes.