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The primary purpose in plant breeding is to develop better varieties. In order to realize the potential benefit from an improved variety, it should be distributed widely and sufficient seed must be produced so that the variety can be grown on farms in the areas to which it is adopted.  Otherwise much of the breeders work would be wasted.

Variety is a synonym of cultivar and has been defined in the International Code for the Nomenclature for cultivated plants (Anon 1980.) in article 10. ‘’The international term cultivar denotes as assemblage of cultivated plants which is clearly distinguished by any characteristics (morphological, physiological, cytological, chemical or others) and which, When reproduced (sexually or asexually) retains its distinguishing characters”. Indian Seeds Act, under its sub-section 16 of section 2 defined variety as “a sub-division of a kind identifiable by growth, yield, plant, fruit, seed or other characteristic”. Both definitions emphasize that variety should be distinguishable from others and capable of retaining its distinguishable features under multiplication. Therefore production of genetically pure and otherwise good quality pedigree seed is an exacting task requiring high technical skills and comparatively more financial investment. During seed production strict attention must be given to the maintenance of genetic purity and other qualities of seeds in order to exploit the full dividends sought to be obtained by introduction of new superior crop plant varieties.

Variety is a group of plants having clear distinguished characters which when reproduced either sexually or asexually retains their characters. The genetic purity of a variety or trueness to its type deteriorates due to several factors during the production cycles. The factors that are responsible for loss of genetic purity during seed production are :

• Developmental Variation
• Mechanical Mixtures
• Mutations
• Natural Crossing
• Genetic drift
• Minor Genetic Variation
• Selective influence of Diseases
• Techniques of the Breeder
• Breakdown of male sterility
• Improper/defective seed certification System

Introduction

Vegetables are important constituents of Indian agriculture and play important role in nutritional security due to their short duration, high yield, nutritional richness, economic viability and ability to generate on-farm and off-farm employment. Vegetables form an integral part of staple diet in India where 42% population is vegetarian and vegetables are sources of daily requirement of nutrients, vitamins and minerals. Our country is blessed with diverse agro-climates with distinct seasons, making it possible to grow wide array of vegetables. The role of vegetable cultivation in the country’s nutritional security, poverty alleviation and employment generation is becoming increasingly important. There are vast opportunities available in export sector, which need to be harnessed to their fullest ability. Vegetable crops have high yield potential and calories per unit area compared to that of cereals in the shortest time. Additionally, vegetable cultivation creates employment in rural sector, as it is a labour intensive farming practice. Vegetables are good source of ready farm income, besides being rich in health building substances, especially protective nutrients (Kalia, 2010 and Meena et al., 2016).

Introduction
Legumes that produce dry seed suitable for human consumption are known as pulses, and they are agronomically valuable plants in the field and in the food chain. In the past ten years, grain legumes—particularly pulses—have become more popular as a means of addressing global agricultural concerns. (Bohra et al. 2015, Varshney et al. 2015).The best plant-based sources of dietary protein, as well as other minerals including iron, zinc, magnesium, and dietary fiber, are pulses. (Bohra et al.2014, Kouris-Blazos and Belski 2016, Maphosa and Jideani 2017). According to Simpson and Campbell (2015), a plant-based agricultural diet high in fruit or legume fiber helps to improve microbial diversity and has a beneficial effect on short-chain fatty acid levels, both of which are critical for preserving gut health. Because of their unique ability to fix nitrogen symbiotically with Rhizobium spp. in their root nodules, legumes not only improve nutritional health but also increase soil fertility (Graham and Vance 2003, Stagnariet al. 2017). The Leguminosae, often known as the Fabaceae, are the third largest family of flowering plants, behind the orchid (Orchidaceae) and sunflower (Asteraceae) families (Walters 1960), with 750 genera and 20,000 species (Polhill 1981).With a productivity of 1016 kg ha-1, 93.23 million tons (m t) of pulses are harvested worldwide from 91.77 million (m ha) of land (http://faostat.fao.org/). With a cumulative average productivity of 1030 kg ha-1, the major pulse crops—dry bean (primarily common bean), chickpea, dry pea (pea), cowpea, pigeonpea, lentil, and faba bean—share 92.58% (84.05 million ha) of the world’s total pulse production, or 92.82 percent (86.53 m t) (http://faostat.fao.org/). According to their ability to adapt to tropical and temperate agroclimatic conditions, pulse crops can be broadly divided into two groups: 1) warm season crops, such as common bean, pigeonpea, and cowpea, and 2) cool season crops, such as pea, chickpea, lentil, and faba bean (Cannon et al. 2009, Young et al. 2003, Zhu et al. 2005). Chickpea, pea, and lentil are regarded as one of the founding grain crops and helped start modern agriculture because of its early domestication (around 11,000 years ago) (Zohary and Hopf 2000).Over the past 60 years, the global area under pulses has increased from 64 to 91.77 million hectares (http://faostat.fao.org/), and numerous high-yielding varieties have been developed and released as a result of extensive research on conventional breeding for pulse improvement due to their high agricultural value (Singh 2005, Saxena 2008, Pérez de la Vega et al. 2011, Torres et al. 2011, Gaur et al. 2012).Pulses are less productive than other crops, particularly cereals, due to factors such growing in risky settings, unpredictable rainfall, extended dry spells, and susceptibility to a range of pests and diseases (Borlaug 1973, Varshney et al. 2013a).

I. FILL UPS

1. The seed colour of cv COH₂ is _____.
2. The special appendage present in castor is called _____.
3. Modified phenol test was identified by _____ for pearl millet hybrids.
4. _____ test is for the varietal identification of sorghum.

Breeding

Pomegranate is genetically heterozygous material thus there is lot of variability existent in the nature. Therefore there is scope for crossing two selected genotypes. Raising of hybrid population and identification of superior types for following major constraints in its successful cultivation.

    1.    Cracking and splitting of fruits is a severe menace due to variation in atmosphere, humidity. 
    2.    Resistance to fruit borer and stem borer. 
    3.    To develop varieties having high sugar (16%) and less acid (1.5 %).
    4.    All varieties bear some sterile flowers. This reduces the yield appreciably. Selection of varieties bearing high percentage of fertile flowers should be achieved.

Varietal release and notification comes under the purview of the Seeds Act which is intended to provide for regulating the quality of certain notified seeds for sale and for marketing and for the matters connected therewith. Released and notified varieties are offered for seed certification by the seed certification agencies which ensure that the varieties under certification meet certain prescribed field and seed standards failing which they stand to be rejected during the process of seed certification.

Purpose of Release

The purpose of release of cultivars is to introduce the newly evolved varieties to the public for general cultivation in the region in which it is suitable. It enables the farmers to choose cultivars for cultivation in a region. In other words, release of a cultivar is in the nature of a recommendation to the farmers for its adoption. Therefore, notification of a variety is linked to the release of a variety, though the release process itself does not have statutory cover.

Varietal Seed Production Technology At a Glance

Varietal description and nomenclature of different guava varieties grown in India are greatly confusing. Some varieties were named according to shape of the fruit, skin colour and pulp colour, while, several other varieties were named after in the place of origin. Pandey (1968) made detailed studies in different cultivars of guava and classified them into the white pulp group and the red pulp group. Guava is largely a self-pollinated crop, but crosspollination also does occur. This results in a large variability in the seedling population from which promising genotypes have been selected in different agro-climatic regions of the country. Promising cultivars of different Indian states are given below:
About 160 genotypes, including somePsidum spp., are available in Indian collections and are maintained at several centres within the country in field gene banks. Nomenclature of the cultivars of guava grown in India is not yet well established. Some of the varieties have been named according to shape, colour, and smoothness of skin or by the place of their origin. Characters like plant growth, yield and physico-chemical composition of different guava varieties were reported by several workers. Varietal evaluation was carried out by many workers who reported performance of these varieties under

Milk, as secreted in the udder of a healthy animal is practically sterile, but during its transit to the processing plant, becomes heavily contaminated with a variety of micro-organisms. These may be responsible for spoilage of milk or for causing diseases in animals and human beings. It thus becomes imperative that adequate heat treatment is given to milk to destroy these micro-organisms, thus increasing the shelf-life of milk as well as making it safe. Varied heat treatments offer the potential of producing different kinds of processed milk to satisfy the needs of the consumer. To cater to the ever-increasing demand of consumers, several varieties of processed milk are available in the market, some of which are discussed below.

5.1. Pasteurised Milk

Pasteurisation was named after the renowned French scientist Louis Pasteur, who discovered that spoilage organisms could be inactivated in wine by applying heat at temperatures below its boiling point. The process was later applied to milk and remains the most important operation in the processing of milk.

It is the process by which every particle of milk is heated to such temperature-time combinations (usually to 63°C for not less than 30 minutes or to 72°C for not less than 15 seconds) and promptly cooled to 4°C or below so as to destroy any harmful bacteria that may be present without affecting flavour and food value. Pasteurisation does not involve the use of any additives. Apart from making milk safe to drink, pasteurisation increases the length of time it can be kept before it spoils. The nutrient losses due to pasteurisation are so small, that they are considered insignificant.

1. INTRODUCTION

For maintenance of genetic purity in the field with the seed crop and to test verify the standards in certification programme, the studies on varietal characterization and identification have attracted the attention of breeders, breeder’s right protection institutions, farmers, the seed industry, certification agencies, and seed testing laboratories with a view to assure the quality of seed marketed to the consumers.

Crop breeders are continuously engaged in the improvement and development of crop varieties, in search of a genotype which will prove superior to the existence cultivars. A strain is duly released by appropriate duly empowered legal organization. Only when it is officially released, it is called variety, Before release, it is said to be strain or line. The release of new crop varieties consists of the following major steps:

1. Development of new strains

The new strains are developed by ICAR Crop Research Institutes and State Agricultural Universities for specific purposes. Various breeding methods are used for development of new strains. Some varieties are developed by selection without hybridization such as pure-line variety, mass selected variety and clonal variety. Development of some varieties involves hybridization and selection. This includes varieties that are developed by pedigree, bulk and backcross methods including multiline cultivars and population improvement methods.

2. Evaluation of performance

This trial is conducted at the research station, where new strains has breed. The object is to make sure that new strains are better in performance than the existence variety, so that it can be promoted to the trials where new strains has to be compete with other strains, developed by other scientists/researchers.

12.1. Variety release

Superior cultivars are to be purified by breeder and tested for genuiness in 7 generations.

Then, they are forwarded to MLT after RYT, RRYT, PYT and CYT in respective research station.

Based on results of the MLT, strain is forwarded to Adaptive Research Trials (ART).

Advertising plays a crucial role in modern business by promoting products, services, and brands to target audiences. With the evolution of technology and communication, various media have emerged to deliver advertisements effectively. Each medium has its unique advantages and is selected based on factors such as target audience, budget, and marketing goals. This chapter explores the various media for advertising, their benefits, and their suitability for different marketing strategies.

Traditional Media for Advertising

1. Print Media

Types of Print Media for Advertising

Print media comprises various formats that businesses and organizations use for advertising. The most common types include

1. Newspapers: Newspapers are one of the oldest and most trusted forms of print media. They offer advertisers a broad readership and localized targeting.

ABSTRACT

Microencapsulation is one of the latest technologies used in the food, pharmaceutical, nutraceutical and cosmetic industry where it is used for maintaining the stability of the food ingredients and slow release of the active food ingredients. For many decades the encapsulation technique was used in the pharmaceutical industries, but from last three decades it has been effectively used in the food industries showing enhanced results in flavour masking and retention of bio- active components present in the food. The production of the microcapsules can be achieved by the various process technologies. The process technologies have been reviewed in this paper such as spray drying, extrusion, spray chilling, emulsions, fluidized bed coating, freeze drying, molecular inclusion, crystallization, co-acervation etc. the encapsulation of food materials has shown a promising result in the newly growing food processing industries. Some of the recent developments in the microencapsulation viz. sweetener immobilization, controlled release and the carrier materials are also being presented in the reviewed paper.

INTRODUCTION

Massively Parallel DNA sequencing also known as next-generation sequencing, revolutionize the genomics and transcriptomics research as their effects are increasingly widespread. A new generation of non-Sanger-based sequencing technologies has delivered on its promise of sequencing DNA at unprecedented speed, thereby enabling impressive scientific achievements and novel biological applications. Before the next generation sequencing, the Sanger’s enzymatic di-deoxy chain termination was used for nucleotide sequencing from last 30 years with various original improvements. Sanger enzymatic di-deoxy chain termination technique first described in 1977 and the Maxam and Gilbert chemical degradation method described in the same year, which was used in sequence cases which could not easily be resolved with the Sanger technique. The two laboratories where the first automated DNA sequencers were produced, simultaneously, were those of Leroy Hood at Caltech, commercialized by Applied Biosystems, and Wilhelm Ansorge at the European Molecular Biology Laboratory EMBL and commercialized by Pharmacia-Amersham, later General Electric (GE) Healthcare. The Sanger method was used in the first automated fluorescent project for sequencing of a genome region, in which sequence determination of the complete gene locus for the HPRT gene was performed using the EMBL technique; in that project the important concept of paired-end sequencing was also introduced for the first time.

Population expansion, climate change, diminished rainfall, and escalating food demand are adversely affecting agriculture, resulting in alterations to crop practices. Consequently, to enhance yields and obtain precise data, it is imperative to implement modern precision farming techniques and deploy diverse sensor technologies.
• In light of the current circumstances and their adverse effects on conventional farming methods, agriculture must be conducted more wisely, employing advanced and cutting-edge technologies. This is the sole method to deliver a solution and address the incessant and expanding demands of the global population.
• Precision agriculture sensors are highly effective in agriculture as they relay data that enables farmers to monitor, enhance their goods, and stay informed about changes in the field and ecosystem.
• Advanced agricultural sensors efficiently identify animals, detect estrus, and monitor health, so enabling the isolation and treatment of ill cows through the identification, detection, and tracking of herds.
• Farmers can now utilize smart sensors in agriculture to monitor their crops remotely, assess their efficacy, manage pest infestations, and promptly implement measures to safeguard their crops from environmental threats.
• A sensor is a device that detects and reacts to specific inputs such as light, movement, pressure, temperature, or humidity, converting them into representations or signals that can be interpreted by people for further analysis and processing.
• They are frequently utilized in many applications, ranging from motion detection in security systems to temperature measurement in HVAC systems. They are also utilized in commonplace items such as smartphones, automobiles, and appliances.