eChapters

Common name:     English – Lady’s finger
    Hindi – Bhindi
    Odia- Bhendi      
Family:     Malvaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant is a herb (Fig. 1 a), widely cultivated as vegetable in the tropical countries including India.

Fia.1. Left carous and adjacent bones of Ox: Front view:-

Ulna

Radius

Fused second and tliird carpals

Ulnar carpal

Radial carpal

Fourth carpal

Fused second and third carpals

Metacarpal tuberosity

Vascular groove

???????Intermediate carpal bone

Family : Cucurbitaceae

Flowering: September-October

Fruiting: October-November

Botanical Description: The plant is an procumbent annual climber growing to 1.5m. The leaves are oval to kidney shaped with five to seven shallow lobes. Plants produce trailing vines and yellow flowers similar to cucumbers, but flowers may be male, female, or perfect. Fruit is spherical or ovoid, large, and can reach the size of a football, although it is generally more flattened. It is striped green or pale green in colour, ultimately turning yellow.

Nutrition involves various bio – chemical and physiological activities which transform feed elements into body elements. These feed elements are nutrients which are digested, absorbed, utilized to build and renew the components of the animal body. As a result, animal grows and produce – milk, eggs, wool with the help of energy so produced in the body. After weaning, most of our farm animals obtain all of their feed supply from plants. Barring carnivores, the plant kingdom is the original and essential source of all animal life, because plants are able to utilize the energy of the sun to build substances which nourish
the animal. Plants make use of carbon dioxide, water and mineral salts to form carbohydrates, fats and proteins, which are utilized in the life processes of animal body. Thus, plants store and animals dissipate energy.

Principle
Chloride ion is determined by Mohr’s method, titration with standard silver nitrate solution in which silver chloride is precipitated first. The end of titration is indicated by formation of red silver chromate from excess AgNO3 and potassium chromate used as an indicator in neutral to slightly alkaline solution.
AgNO3 +Cl- ? AgCl+NO3
2AgNO3+ K2CrO4 ? Ag2CrO4+2KNO3 (Reddish Brown)
Reagents
1. Standard Silver nitrate 0.0141N : Take 1.189 g and dissolved it in 500 ml distilled water.
2. Sodium chloride 0.014N: Dissolve 0.28 g sodium chloride in 500 ml of distilled water.
3. Potassium Chromate indicator
Procedure
1. Take 50 ml sample in a 100 ml conical flask
2. Adjust its pH in between 7.0 and 8.0 either with alkali or acid solution. Otherwise, AgOH is formed at high pH level or CrO4 -2 at low pH level.
3. Add 1 ml of potassium chromate (K2CrO4) colour turn to light yellow.
4. Titrate with standard silver nitrate (AgNO3) solution till colour change from light yellow to brick red colour.
5. Note the volume of AgNO3 added (A)
6. For better accuracy, titrate distilled water in the same manner
7. Note the volume of silver nitrate added for distilled water (B)

Common name: English- Indian liquorice
                           Hindi- Ratti/Gunchi 
                           Odia- Kaincha
Family : Fabaceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a common weed (Fig. 2 a) found in forest and it is also seen growing on road sides, gardens, waste places and sometimes planted in gardens.

Family : Dilleniaceae

Flowering: May- June

Fruiting: September-February

Botanical Description: The plant is a moderate sized evergreen tree growing up to 15m tall. The leaves are deep green in colour, oblong to lanceolate and 15-36 cm in long. The flowers are white, large, up to 5 inches across. The fruit is rounded, 5-12 cm in diameter aggregate of 15 carpels with each carpel containing 5 seeds embedded in the pulp.

54.1. Aim

To determine crude fibre in given samples.

54.2. Theory

Fibres can be classified into four categories like crude fibre (cellulose); acid detergent fibre (cellulose + lignin); neutral detergent fibre (cellulose + lignin + hemicelluloses) and total dietary fibre (Cellulose + lignin + hemicelluloses + pectic substances). Crude fibre is the organic residue of a sample. A fat free sample is treated with boiling sulphuric acid and subsequently with sodium hydroxide. The residue after subtraction of ash is regarded as crude fibre.

54.3. Reagents/ Apparatus/Glassware

1. 0.255 N Sulphuric acid solution

2. 0.313 N Sodium hydroxide solution

3. 10% Potassium sulphate solution

4. Ethanol

Carbohydrates exhibit protein sparing action, because proteins are mainly required for tissue – building, that is, general wear and tear in the body. If there is any emergency, say animal is deficient in calories of the diet, then it will use adipose and protein tissues. It is said that proteins and fats are burnt (or oxidized) in the flame of carbohydrate. It means that certain intermediary compounds of glucose oxidation through Krebs cycle, are absolutely necessary for oxidation of proteins and fats. Again, in any emergency, if glucose level of the body goes down, fats and proteins are taken over and they get metabolized faster than the body can take care of the intermediate products. However, ketone bodies – acetone, acetoacetate β – hydroxy butyrate appear in urine. In addition to above, monosaccharides are very important (vital)m structural components of many compounds which regulate metabolism. Among these are DNA, RNA for transfer of genetic information of the cell, which contain ribose and deoxy ribose sugars. Glucuronic acid occurs in the liver and this combines with toxic chemicals and bacterial by – products and hence, acts as detoxifying agent. Hyaluronic acid (a disaccharide) forms matrix of connective tissue. Heparin, a mucopolysaccharide, is very important anti – coagulant. Chondroitin sulfates are present in cartilage, bone, skin and tendon. Glycosides are widely distributed throughout the plant kingdom and a number of them have been used as drugs for animals. 
Lipids: these are the most concentrated form of the stored energy in animal kingdom, because they provide 2.25 times per unit more energy than carbohydrate. They provide insulation for vital organs protecting them from mechanical shock and also maintain body temperature. The cell membranes have phospholipids, for example – Erythrocytes. Prostaglandins exhibit hormonal activities. Essential fatty acids – linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic acids show deficiency symptoms in their absence. Lipid also delays hunger, because it requires longer time to pass through stomach than carbohydrate or protein. They also help in lubrication.

Quadrangle: A cell immediately beyond the arculus (Odonata, Zygoptera).

Quadrat: A four-sided defined area from which a sample is collected, used in population determination.

Quadrivoltine: Four life cycles per year.

Qualitative defenses of plants: Toxins and small-molecular-weight compounds (such as alkaloids) that are active against the physiological systems of phytophagous insects; complex, digestibility-reducing substances (such as tannins) that reduce the ability of insects to feed on plants.

Quantitative specificity: In serology, the principle that a given kind of antibody will react more strongly, under comparable conditions, with the particular kind of antigen used in its formation than with any other substance (cf. Antibody, Antigen, and Precipitin reaction).

Common name    :    English- Indian mallow
        Hindi- Kanghi 
        Odia- Pedipedica

Family    :    Malvaceae

Habit & Distribution
It is a shrub (Fig.3 a) commonly found in waste places, along road sides, as weeds in garden and in forests. It is distributed throughout India.

1.     Length and Size
2.     Volume
3.     Weight

Family : Dioscoreaceae

Flowering & Fruiting: Throughout the year

Botanical description: The plant is a vigorous, perennial, climbing plant, producing annual stems up to 15 metres long from a very large tuberous rootstock. Tubers of the plant are one to several, polymorphic, variously branched or lobed and hairy with small rootlets. The stems scramble over the ground, or twine into the surrounding vegetation. The stem is quadrangular, winged, and twines right-handed. Leaves are opposite, 7-18 x 4-10 cm, broadly ovate, base cordate with acuminate apex. Flowers are laxly arranged, sessile with 1-1.5 mm long and ovate bracts and fleshy tepals.

Micrografting is a method to produce virus free, viroid free and disease free grafts that are clonally propagated. This method is an aid to mass multiplication. In vitro grafting is applied to difficult to root clones. Micrografting is performed to understand incompatibility prediction between the two grafting partners, virus indexing, deduction of latent virus, safe germplasm exchange and to do grafting functions throughout the year. It is not season specific. Protocols for micrografting are available for almond, pistachia, olive, prunus, grape, mulberry, cashew, citrus, peach, pear, avocado, hazlenut, walnut, chestnut and grape fruit (Hussein et al., 2014).

Role of water
Water is the principal constituent of living plants as well as animal body. With the maturity of seed, water content decreases. Animal body is composed of two thirds of water – intra and extra cellular fluids, and that a feed is any substance used by the body for building tissue, it is obvious that water is very important nutrient. Experiments have shown that animals may live for 100 days without organic feed, but they may die within 5 to 10 days, when deprived off water. Cell rigidity and elasticity imparts a definite form to body, which may be changed by the liquid content of the cell. Due to its high dielectric constant, oppositely charged ions co – exist in water without much interference. Hydrolysis is an important chemical process in digestion and other metabolism, where H+ and OH- ions of water are introduced into bigger molecules and these bigger molecules are broken down into smaller units.
Lubrication is yet another important function where water prevents friction or drying in joints, conjunctiva, mouth, pleura surrounding lungs, other soft organs. Body heat regulation is carried out due to certain properties – for example, due to high specific heat conducting power, water can carry away heat from the site of production and distributing it throughout the body. Yet another due to such property, highest latent heat of evaporation from skin, lungs or tongue. Oxygen and carbon di oxide are soluble in water, hence gaseous exchange takes place in the tissues, for example, fish. The “aqueous humour” of eye helps to keep up the ‘shape’ and ‘elasticity’ of the eye – ball and acts as refractive medium.

Nitrite (NO2-) is formed in waters by oxidation of ammonia compounds (by aerobic nitrifying bacteria, e.g. Nitrosomonas) or by reduction of nitrate (by facultative anaerobic denitrifying bacteria, e.g. Pseudomonas). Such oxidation and reduction may occur in wastewater treatment plants, water distribution system, and natural waters. As an intermediate stage in nitrogen cycle, it is unstable. Very high nitrite levels are usually associated with waters having unsatisfactory microbiological activity.
Principle (Colorimetric method)
When nitrite (NO2 -) as nitrous acid (HNO2) mixes with sulfanilamide in an acidic environment (pH 2-2.5), a diazonium salt is created. This salt then combines with N-(1-naphthyl)-ethylenediamine dihydrochloride (NED dihydrochloride) to make a vivid pinkish red azo-dye. The amount of nitrite in the sample directly correlates with the colour that is created. At 543 nm, the colour follows Beer’s law up to 180 µg/L with a 1 cm light path. By diluting a sample, a higher nitrite concentration can be determined. Sulfanilamide + HNO2 + HCl ? Diazonium salt + H2O.
Diazonium salt + NED-dihydrochloride ? Red colouredazo dye

Common name    :    English- Red hot cat’s tail
        Odia- Bilei lanja
Family    :    Euphorbiaceae

Habit & Distribution
The plant usually seen along the road sides and often grown in gardens (fig 4 a).

General Characters
It is a bushy shrub grows up to 1.8 to 3.7 meters in height. The leaves are ever green, oval, 10-23 cm long and 7.5-10 cm in width with pointed ends. Flowers are borne in attractive shades, ranging in colour from deep purple to bright red and clustered in velvety catkins, which are about 30-50 cm long. The plant flowers throughout the year.

Family : Dioscoreaceae

Flowering & Fruiting: September-October

Botanical description: Aerial yam is a glabrous-leafed, non-spiny, perennial climbing plant producing annual stems up to 10 metres long from a woody, tuberous rootstock. These stems scramble over the ground, or twine into the surrounding vegetation. The stems twine left-handed and produce aerial axillary bulbils. The plant produces tubers; however the bulbils which grow at the base of its leaves are more important food products. They are about the size of potatoes (hence the name air potato) weighing from 0.5 to 2 kg. The flowers are whitish or pinkish in colour.

The most oxidizable form of nitrogen is nitrate nitrogen (NO3 -N), which is found in minimal amounts in surface waters but can reach considerable concentrations in some aquifers. An essential plant nutrient, nitrate also contributes to eutrophication in receiving water bodies.
Principle
Nitrate reacts with phenol disulphonic acid and produces a nitro-derivative which in alkaline solution develops yellow colour due to rearrangement of its structure. The yellow colour follows Beer’s law and is proportional to the concentration of nitrate present in the sample. Ultraviolet (UV) technique measures the absorbance of nitrate at 220 nm, which is suitable for screening uncontaminated water (low in organic matter). A second measurement made at 275 nm, may be used to correct the nitrate value (because 275 nm is not absorbed by nitrate, but absorbed by other matter). The nitrate calibration curve follows Beer’s law up to 11mg NO3 -N /L.
Reagents
1. Stock nitrate solution (1ml=100 µg NO3 -N): Dry potassium nitrate (KNO3) in an oven at 105 oC for 24 h. Take 360.9 mg potassium nitrate and dissolve in distilled water and dilute to 500 ml. Preserve it with adding 1 ml of chloroform in per 500 ml stock nitrate solution. This solution will stable for at least 6 months.
2. Intermediate nitrate solution (1 ml = 10µg NO3 -N): Take 100 ml of stock nitrate solution and dilute it to 1000 ml of distilled water. This solution can be preserve by adding 2 ml of chloroform per 1000 ml. This Intermediate nitrate solution will stable for at least 6 months.
3. Hydrochloric acid (HCL) solution, 1N: Take 83 ml of hydrochloric acid and dilute it to 1000 ml of distilled water