eChapters

Abstract
The widespread use of chemical fertilizers since the Green Revolution has boosted food production but at the cost of environmental degradation, reduced soil fertility, and compromised food safety. Indiscriminate application has led to groundwater contamination, loss of beneficial soil organisms, and increased crop susceptibility to pests, posing health risks. Organic farming, particularly vermicomposting, emerges as a sustainable solution, utilizing biological nutrients to enhance soil fertility and produce safe, high-quality food. Vermicomposting offers social, economic, and environmental benefits, creating low-skill jobs, requiring minimal investment, and reducing waste through recycling. Techniques like Rhino Vermi Bed and Matka Vermicomposting enable small-scale farmers, women, and rural youth to engage in profitable agripreneurship, fostering economic growth and ecological sustainability despite challenges like market awareness and infrastructure limitations.
Keywords: Vermicomposting, Organic Farming, Food Safety, Environmental Sustainability, Agripreneurship, Soil Fertility, Rural Development, Waste Recycling, Small-Scale Farming, Economic Growth

Vermicomposting is the process of turning organic debris into worm castings by earthworms.

Earthworms feed on decaying material, pass through alimentary canals and excreted as castings.

pH of the castings is 7 (neutral) and the castings are odourless.

Contain high amounts of nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium.

Contains 5 times the available nitrogen, 7 times the available potash, and 1 ½ times more calcium and rich in humus.

Improves aeration, porosity, structure, drainage, and moisture holding capacity.

Vermicomposting is the rapid aerobic non-thermophilic composting technique for decomposition of various biodegradable wastes using epigeic earthworms in comparison to other conventional pit or heap composting techniques. Earthworms fragment the half decomposed organic material, mix and promote microbial activity. Worm utilizes 5-10% of food for its body growth and excretes remaining portion as vermicompost. The action of earthworm is both mechanical and biochemical. Mechanical fragmentation of the half decomposed organic material to finer particles by earthworm in its gizzard helps to increase surface area of action by microbes and aeration inside bed. Biochemical action improves the enzymatic digestion, nutrient enrichment and change in organic and inorganic contents.

Vermicompost is the product of the decomposition process using various species of earthworms, to create a mixture of decomposing bedding materials and vermicast.

This process is called vermicomposting, while the rearing of worms for this purpose is called vermiculture. Vermicast is also called worm casting, worm humus, worm manure or worm faeces and are the end product of the breakdown of organic matter by earthworms. It is a mesophilic process and certain species of earthworms are used to enhance the process of organic waste conversion and produce a better end product. Vermicompost is an excellent organic fertilizer having water soluble macro as well as micronutrients, growth promoters, enzymes and soil conditioner, helpful for growth and development of plants. It helps to improve biological, chemical and physical properties of the soil.

Earthworms have been on the earth for over 20 million years. In this time they have faithfully done their part to keep the cycle of life continuously moving. Their purpose is simple but very important. They are nature’s way of recycling organic nutrients from dead tissues back to living organisms. Many have recognized the value of these worms. Ancient civilizations, including Greece and Egypt valued the role earthworms played in soil. The Egyptian Pharaoh, Cleopatra said, “Earthworms are sacred.”

As long ago as 1881 Charles Darwin wrote: “It may be doubted whether there are many other animals which have played so important a part in the history of the world, as have these lowly organized creatures”.

The soil of the food bowl states of our country viz. Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh and plains of Uttarakhand have become deficient in organic matter, macro and micro nutrients and trace elements. Now soil has become non living due to death of earthworms and beneficial micro organism. Farmers are using mainly nitrogen and phosphorus in crop production. However 17 elements are essential for plants nutrition for growing of crops. To get maximum yield and output from the crop plants, a vicious cycle of using the maximum amount of chemical amendments is going on. In the chemical amendments, indiscriminate use of both fertilizers and pesticides are included. Due to this indiscriminate use of these fertilizers and pesticides, our environment is being polluted and living organisms on this planet are experiencing the deleterious effects of all this on their health. These chemicals also exert their influence on soil flora and fauna, therefore the balance of macro and micronutrients release in soil is being disturbed and as a consequence soil fertility and productivity is decreasing day by day. Therefore, for sustainable agriculture healthy farming is fast becoming an urgent necessity.

The problems being faced are the destruction of the soil health leading to reduction in production potential, failure of pest control strategies due to the development of pesticide resistance, biomagnification of pesticides such as reside problems in food and water. The food grain produced and assessed with attributes of fertilizers, the fertilizer efficiency seems to be decreasing. In 1970-71 it was 17.1%, declined in 1980-81 to 10.3% and in 1988-89 reached to 8.1%. Now a day, farmers are not properly using organic, green and compost manures in crop husbandry. Soil fertility and ground water level has been declining very fast by adopting intensive farming. If soil health of any country has been depleted, then the food grain production will also tend to decrease.

Production of any selected species of earthworm in a particular place adopting semi-natural condition is called vermiculturing. As discussed earlier in chapter 2 and 4, commercial production of certain earthworm species is essential to meet up the huge demand of earthworms for vermicomposting of organic wastes, for production of earthworm meal for pet animals, poultry and fish farming, for preparation of medicine and for their use in reducing toxic chemicals from soil and water, etc. Since during vermicomposting, earthworm multiplies in vermicompost beds, many people confuse between this two terms – vermiculturing and vermicomposing.

The importance of earthworms in agriculture and human health has been realized since prehistoric times. The famous Greek philosopher, Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) first described the importance of earthworm by calling them as “The intestines of the Earth”. The question, ‘How lime and charcoal from soil surface gets into lower layers?’ in the mind of Sir Charles Darwin (1809-1882 A.D.) ended up with the findings in 1837 that earthworms took those materials to lower layers and it played a significant role in formation of humified soil layer. He wrote in his book, “The formation of vegetable mould through the actions of worms” in 1881 that ‘The plough is one of the most ancient and most valuable of man’s inventions; but long before he existed the land was in fact regularly ploughed, and still continues to be thus ploughed by earthworms.

1. The rearing of earthworms for composting wastes into valuable nutrients

is known as …. . .

 a) Organic farming b) Organic manuring

 c) Vermitechnology d) Sustainable technology

 2. Vermitechnology provide …. . .

 a) Vermiwash b) Vermicompost

 c) Organic fertilizer d) All of these

 3. Vermicompost improves …. . . property of soil.

 a) Physical b) Chemical

 c) Biological d) All of these

 4. In class oligochaeta …. . .

 a) Parapodia  absent b) Clitellum present

 c) Pharynx without jaws d) All of these

 5. In which order earthworm is placed?

 a) Oilgochaeta b) Frrantia

 c) Neooligochaeta d) Sedentaria

4.1. Promotion of Kitchen Gardening 4.1.1. Essential Guide Lines for Kitchen Gardening • The location should be in the backyard of the house. As far as practicable, kitchen garden plot should be located near to the well, water tap or other source of irrigation. It should never be located in the shady area of home, which is generally not suitable for most of the vegetables. There should be enough of sunlight for major part of day. • It should be fenced with boundary wall or fruit crop or live fence all around. • The layout should be such as to make the garden look attractive and allow access to all its parts. The land should be laid out in small paths and plots. • The garden should preferably be rectangular in shape. • About 200 m2 area is sufficient for a five members family to supply about 1.5 kg vegetable per day

3.1 Introduction

The world population will grow by another 2 billion people by 2025 and feeding them will be a big challenge. Rapid industrial development and fast urbanization, the arable lands are continuously shrinking. Many scientists and researchers reported that the Earth had lost a third of its arable lands over the last 40 years¹. In the current scenario, the most challenging task for agricultural sciences is to ensure for continuous and enough supply of food to growing human civilization. Presently, all available arable land on the earth are using extensive pesticides and fertilizers in various ways that are not sustainable as well as harmful to the environment.

There is an urgent need to think about sustainable farming options as arable land for farming is continuously reducing to fulfil the food material demand of growing population. Vertical farming can produce more food from fewer land and water resources. Though it takes out many of the risks inherent in outdoor crop production. With the control of light exposure, indoor temperature, relative humidity and watering levels, growers can grow food very efficiently. Vertical farming has the potential to produce food with less energy, less water, less waste and in less space than traditional methods. It also negates the need for harmful chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Developing and installing vertical farm in those areas where people need good quality healthy food, tackle the shortage of nutritive food material at a local level. Vertical farming can be defined as it is the practice of growing crops in vertically stacked layers where controlled-environment agriculture practices usually incorporated with the aims to optimize plant growth. The soilless farming techniques such as hydroponics, aquaponics, and aeroponics also incorporated in vertical farming as shown in Fig. 3.1. Vertical farming is a very old idea, and indigenous peoples used vertically layered growing techniques like the rice terraces of East Asia. The term vertical farming was coined by American geologist Gilbert Ellis Bailey in 1915. In 1999, Dickson Despommier, a professor at New York’s Columbia University, popularized the modern idea of vertical farming, building upon the idea together with his students.

With the advent of modernization and urbanization, people are shifting from rural to urban areas, thereby, urban population is increasing day by day resulting in congested cities and towns. All around the world, a huge number of buildings are being constructed adding many more in future. Throughout the years, replacement of vegetated surfaces with paved and impervious surfaces in the urban areas have increased the temperature as compared to rural areas, because the paved surfaces absorbs, retain and reradiate more solar energy than vegetation. The ambient temperature in urban area can be as much as 6oC higher than the air in rural areas.

This is a special kind of garden made with help of vertical structures and plants are grown / trained in special manner. Besides, roofs can also be converted into green roof. Restricted availability of ground space, modification of residential places and quest for growing plants have given birth of vertical gardening. Practically, this type of gardening has widened the scope of growing plants. Small spaces can also be converted into a lively place with proper design. Even bare walls can be converted into an attractive green wall with proper structure and designing with plants.

Advantages

Vertical gardening is ideal for urban areas especially for people living in the apartments. Following advantages have been recorded.

Foliage diversity of a forest stand has an important role in providing food for tropical forest birds. This feature adds to the ability of tropical forests to harbour high bird diversity. Studies on forest bird communities mainly examined the parameters like structure of forest bird communities (Nilson, 1983); distributions (Howe et al., 1981) and community organisation (Landers and Mac Mohan, 1980). The pioneering, studies of Mac Arthur and Mac Arthur (1961) established the relationship between bird diversity and foliage density. Mac Arthur et al. (1962) and Mac Arthur et al. (1966) supported the above hypothesis. Some studies have showed negative relationship also (Wiens, 1983). Other vegetation characters, which have significant effect on bird diversity are foliage volume, percentage vegetation cover (Karr and Roth, 1971), percentage canopy cover (Crawford et al., 1981; Wiens and Rottenberry, 1981; James and Wamer, 1982). In India Ramakrishnan (1983) examined many bird community parameters at Silent Valley. Diversity and structure of birds were also studied by Johnsingh et al. (1987), Katti (1989), Daniels (1989), Sundaramoorthy (1991), Johnsingh and Joshua (1994), Gokula and Vijayan (1996). Even though many studies have been reported on the forest bird communities from South India, relation between foliage abundance and bird diversity have not been dealt in detail. The correlation between the abundance of birds in different height classes of tropical forest canopy with foliage abundance is reported in this chapter. The study forms part of a major investigation (Jayson, 1994), which determined many ecological aspects of two bird communities. Seasonal changes in these bird communities were reported earlier (Jayson and Mathew, 2000).

ABSTRACT

Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizal (VAM) fungi are known to improve the mineral nutrient and water status of the plants even under various abiotic stresses. During present investigations VAM fungus Glomus fasciculatum was used for developing mycorrhizal association with Sesbania sesban (L.) Merrill. In general mycorrhizal (M) plants exhibited better growth and development and showed significantly higher chlorophyll content, better PS II as well as PS I activities when compared to NM plants.

In general, both M and NM plants invariably showed reduced growth and development upon exposure to drought stress. However, the M plants could confront this abiotic stress more effectively than the NM plants. This was vindicated by the faster decline in the chlorophyll content and the photochemical activities in NM plants in comparison to the M plants upon exposure to drought stress. The higher photosynthetic efficiency of the M plants under drought stress indicate the presence of certain adaptive strategies in the form of osmotic adjustment operational in these plants through VAM association. The osmotic potential of the leaf cell sap in M plants was significantly lower than that of NM plants of Sesbania sesban, when exposed to either drought stress. The lower y of M plants as compared to NM plants under drought stress could be due to the accumulation of compatible solutes such as proline and sugars. A higher level of proline accumulation in the leaves of M plants than NM plants exposed to drought stress help them to counteract the adverse effects of stress better than NM plants.

Introduction

Vesicular arbuscular mycorrhizae are fungi that exhibit symbiosis with roots of higher plants. The term vesicular arbuscular is derived from characteristic structure i.e. ‘branched hyphae or arbuscles’ that are formed with in the root cortical cells and vesicles or ‘swollen lipid storing organs’ that occur with in or between them.

Histology

Cell: Structural and functional unit of an organism

M. Schleiden & Theodor Schwan – proposed cell theory

- All living being made up of cell

Tissue: Group of cell and their extracellular product organized to perform a particular function

M. Malpighii – Father of histology

Administration

Term Administration is derived from a Latin word Administaire which means to serve. The word administration is also derived from the English word administracioun, which is in turn is derived from the French word administration, which itself has its root from the Latin word administratio, which means ad (to) and ministratio (give service). The term administration is a more general and comprehensive connotation and may be defined as the universal process of organizing people and resources efficiently so as to direct activities toward common goals and objectives. Administration is a distinct skill and directed towards the guidance, leadership and control of the efforts of a group of individuals towards some common goal.

Administration is the art of guiding, coordinating and integrating policies established for any organizational unit to effectively and efficiently achieve the purpose of the organization.