eChapters

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Grafting and budding are horticultural techniques used to join parts from two or more plants so that they appear to grow as a single plant. In grafting, the upper part (scion) of one plant grows on the root system (rootstock) of another plant. In the budding process, a bud is taken from one plant and grown on another. The practice of grafting can be traced back 4,000 years to ancient China and Mesopotamia. As early as 2,000 years ago, people recognized the incompatibility problems that may occur when grafting olives and other fruiting trees.

7.2 ROOT STOCK

The part of the graft that provides root system to the grafted plant is known as rootstock. It is, normally, raised by seeds in the seedbed and then, transplanted in the nursery bed for budding and grafting. Rootstocks are also raised in pots and polythene bags.

For seed storage in the gene banks, the seed stored should have high quality which is greatly affected by seed handling during collection. The details on these issues have been given by Smith (1995).  In terms of seed storage characteristics seeds are of following 3 steps.

Soil testing identifies various constraints in soil that limit crop production. Fertilizer recommendation and soil management practices to be adopted are based on the soil test report. Soil testing starts with collection of soil samples from the field
and ends with interpretation of soil test results leading to necessary recommendations for increasing crop production.

This chapter explains how representative soil samples should be collected, labelled, transported and prepared for analysis. It identifies essential sampling equipment, including spades, khurpis, augers, trays, sampling bags, markers and polythene sheets. The recommended procedure involves dividing land into uniform sampling units, collecting soil from several well-distributed locations and combining these portions into a composite sample. The chapter describes V-shaped sampling cuts, suitable sampling depths and sample reduction through quartering. It also lists the field information that should accompany each sample. Procedures for air-drying, grinding, sieving and mixing samples are presented, together with precautions for avoiding unusual areas and contamination.

Background
Urine collection is a fundamental procedure in veterinary medicine, providing valuable insights into an animal’s health status. Urine analysis can detect urinary tract infections, kidney function, and metabolic disorders. Several methods can be employed for urine collection in dogs, each with its advantages and limitations. Always collect urine in clean, sterile and leakproof containers.
Procedures of Urine Collection In Animals
1. Free catch or voided urine: Collecting urine as the animal voids naturally. This procedure is non-invasive and easy to perform. However,
the collection of voided urine may not be free from contaminants. Contamination risk from external genitalia and dilution or concentration variation in urine composition is common.
2. Catheterization: Inserting a catheter into the urethra to obtain a sample, often used in larger animals or when free catch is not possible. It provides a sterile sample that is suitable for bacterial culture and cytology. However, catheterization is an invasive procedure with the potential for trauma and discomfort to the animals.
3. Cystocentesis: Inserting a needle directly into the bladder through the abdominal wall to collect a sterile sample. Like catheterization, cystocentesis provides a sterile sample, ideal for bacterial culture and cytology.

Active plant breeding programmes call for continuous search for new genes to be incorporated into advanced breeding lines to face the new problems and the challenges. The rapid technological developments in gene transfer technology in recent years have opened new avenues for introducing useful genes from wild and weedy relatives of crop plants. It is also a fact that due to genetic erosion, wild species, are getting lost. Therefore, systematic collection of germplasm of wild and weedy species have become more relevant today then ever before for the following reasons (Bothmer and Seberg, 1995).

PLANT EXPLORATION AND GERMPLASM COLLECTION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES

Plant exploration and collection activities have been undertaken for a wide range of needs - by naturalists, travelers and plant hunters over the past several centuries in the quest for new and better economic plants in the southeast Asian region, ornamentals in the Himalayas and many others; by taxonomists for working out plant diversity and delineating phyto- geographic differences, and providing a basis for pinpointing areas with high species diversity and changes over time; world-wide collection, augmentation and characterization of crop plant diversity by Vavilov and co-workers (1926) for understanding the patterns of crop plant diversity and delineating centres of diversity; search for wild forms of species, and wild relatives of crop plants for working out primary centres of origin and crop genepools; biosystematic study, survey and in situ study and collection in protected areas for determining patterns of diversity build-up in crop and wild species. Concept of centres of origin of crop plants, importance of the wild genepool of crops, dependence on wild plants as a source of edible and otherwise useful species ensuing from these efforts provide the basis for systematic exploration and collection of plant genetic resources.

Introduction

Plant genetic resources represent a huge reservoir of genes of economic importance, which acts as buffer against environment fluctuations. These genes are largely spread in the land races and traditional cultivars, which have been conserved by virtue of their specific merits. The human and natural selection interventions have resulted in establishment, improvement and differentiation of numerous types, which represent genetic wealth of the crop species and are commonly referred as plant genetic resources (PGR).

Genetic Erosion and Need for Conservation

In view of the availability of high yielding varieties/hybrids, the traditional cultivars/ land races have been disregarded by the farmers due to their low economic potential. Sustaining the green revolution, changing cultivation practices and intensification of land use pattern have been the potential threats for rapid erosion of plant genetic diversity. The erosion of these resources has resulted into the extinction of several valuable genetic materials. Realizing the consequences of genetic erosion and importance of plant genetic resources, more diversity needs to be conserved for future. Prior to conservation the collection and characterization of germplasm through morphological and molecular markers for establishing the identity of genotype is essentially required. For effective utilization of PGR in vegetable improvement programme, the proper characterization and evaluation of genotypes for breeder driven traits including biotic and abiotic stresses in target environments is urgently needed. In addition, value addition is an important area of concern especially in vegetable crops. After implementation of recommendations of Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), the major thrust has been given on conservation of bio-resources. In view of the globalization and emerging IPR regimes (UPOV, TRIPS, ITPGFRA etc.), there is a need for having suitable mechanisms for the protection of bio-resources.

Abstract

An experiment was conducted in two replications with seventy germplasm lines during kharif 2012 at College of Agriculture, UAS, Raichur. The germplasm included 30 local varieties from different parts of Karnataka and 40 lines collected from AICRP, Jabalpur. Each entry was sown in three lines of 4 m length with 30 cm x10 cm spacing. Out of seventy lines sixty two entries were germinated. These lines were evaluated for seed yield and other ancillary characteristics viz., days to 50% flowering, days to maturity, plant height, number of primary branches, number of capitula, number of seeds per capitulum and seed yield. Among them, six entries performed better than check variety No. 71 and 12 entries performed better than another check variety RCR 18. Among all the entries N-84 (238.89 kg/ha) and SD-33 (215.28 kg/ha) produced high yield. Hadagali local and No. 71 (51.5 days) were found earliest in flowering and maturing varieties and SP 141 was late in flowering (71 days) and late in maturing. Tavaregere local (66.5 cm) and SP134 had less plant height (67.5 cm) and BMD 127 had highest (113.5 cm) plant height. The number of primary branches was more in the genotype Humnabad local (12.5). Number of capsules per plant was more in Humnabad local and ICP 76 (53.0) and number of seeds per capsule were more in BMD 115 (77.0).

Transfusion therapy is basically an attempt to replace blood or its components when the life is threatened. Blood transfusion plays a life saving role in general mostly to shorten the recovery time during any severe blood loss conditions arising due to accidents, major surgical interference, haemoprotozoan diseases especially in canines during anaemic conditions due to sever helminthic infestions, tick infectation, haemophilia etc.

In livestock, diversity of blood and lack of commercially available blood typing reagents, make blood group matching and typing difficult, which results in reduced importance in veterinary practice. Blood or individual blood component is to be transferred during the following conditions-

Collection of Blood Objective: To diagnose the existing disease condition, if any. Types of blood collection • Arterial sampling: In order to measure arterial blood gases, an arterial blood sample is taken from an artery. Only veterinary professionals who are legally permitted to do so for their work in their country and who have proven their expertise via formal training should take arterial blood samples. • Venipuncture sampling: The most used method of taking blood from humans and animals is venipuncture. Collection occurs from a superficial vein near the surface that is not very close to any large nerves.

The tentative diagnosis of viral diseases of livestock can be made by clinical symptoms alone. The clinical diagnosis is substantiated by the laboratory to obtain a precise, correct and prompt diagnosis. The success however depends on the collection of suitable materials in proper transport medium at a particular stage of disease condition and its dispatch to the laboratory in a manner that little or no alterations occurs in the specimen. This would facilitate the isolation and identification of the causative viral agents easily.

On the face of an outbreak of a disease, collection of right clinical specimens in proper preservative, their transportation to the laboratory under ideal conditions and quick processing of specimens in the laboratory to identify the causative agent are crucial to successful control of the disease. This attains more importance when a highly contagious disease appears.

Collection of specimens from a virus-infected host is the first step for demonstration or isolation of a virus. Specimens for virus isolation should be collected at the time when the maximum amount of virus can be expected to be present. i.e. collect the specimens as early as possible after the onset of clinical symptoms. In many viral diseases maximum viral production occurs before the patient becomes ill so that it is ideal to collect the specimen at an even early time.
The nature of the specimen taken in any particular instance is determined by the patient’s clinical syndrome and previous history. They are best considered under three main headings.

1. Specimen for virus isolation/antigen detection/ nucleic acid detection
2. Specimen for serological investigation
3. Specimen for direct examination

To identify parasitic infections, it is essential to examine excretory- secretory products (ESPs), viz., faeces, urine, sputum and nasal discharges as examination of such material is essential for clinical diagnosis. It is extremely rare to get an animal completely free from parasites and at the same time all animals may not show signs of disease. Most of the important helminths and coccidia inhabit intestinal tract. Therefore, clinical diagnosis of gut dwelling helminths and coccidian depends mostly on identification of ova/oocyst in faecal samples

For the laboratory diagnosis of the parasitic infections, it is essential to examine various excretory-secretory products, viz., faeces, urine and nasal discharges as  examination of such material is essential for clinical diagnosis. It is extremely rare to get an animal completely free from parasites and at the same time all animals may not show signs of disease. Since, most of the important helminths and coccidia inhabit intestinal tract, therefore, clinical diagnosis of gut dwelling helminths and coccidia depends mainly on identification of ova/oocyst in faecal samples.

Trace minerals have long been identified as essential components in the diets of domestic livestock species. Trace minerals exist in cells and tissues of the animal body in a variety of chemical combinations, and in characteristic concentrations, depending on the trace mineral consumed and the tissue in which it is metabolized. Concentrations of trace minerals must be maintained within narrow limits if the functional and structural integrity of the tissue is to be maintained and the growth, health, and productivity of the animal are to remain unimpaired. Minerals are as vital to cattle as grass, water or air.

Introduction

The quality of interaction between clinicians and microbiologists has an enormous influence on the effectiveness of the laboratory service. An accurate diagnosis is based on the interpretation of both clinical and laboratory data. Investigation of disease is solely dependent on the quality and appropriateness of the specimens collected. The diagnosis depends on the skill and care with which the clinicians select, collect and transport the specimen to the laboratory. Clinical history, including the tentative diagnosis, should always accompany the specimen. If available, a detailed post-mortem report must also be sent. These set of information will help the microbiologist to select the most appropriate procedure and to furnish a meaningful interpretation of the results.

Specimens need to be collected for establishing a disease diagnosis or monitoring of vaccine response or surveillance. The knowledge of the pathogenesis of the infectious disease is the most important factor for determining the most suitable specimen. The samples need to be appropriate, and adequate in number and amount to provide a statistically valid result. Samples must be taken with care, to avoid undue stress or damage to the bird or danger to the operator. Careful consideration must be given to the collection, containment, and storage of the specimens, including biosafety measures to prevent spillage to the environment or exposure of other birds and humans.

The collection, transportation, and preservation of fish samples for laboratory analysis in India demand strict adherence to standardized protocols. In a country where aquaculture contributes significantly to the economy, improper sample handling can result in inaccurate diagnoses, compromising disease surveillance, biosecurity, and productivity.
Accurate diagnostic outcomes begin with the proper selection of specimens. Ideally, moribund fish or those freshly dead (within six hours) should be chosen, as decomposition rapidly degrades tissue quality. Samples may include whole fish or tissue from critical organs such as the gills, liver, kidney, spleen, and skin lesions.
Dissection must be conducted using sterile instruments—scissors, scalpels, and forceps—and tissue samples should be placed in sterile containers or cryovials. To prevent contamination, aseptic techniques are crucial: sterilize instruments between each sample and disinfect the fish’s external surface using 70% ethanol prior to sampling.
Maintaining the biological integrity of samples during transit is essential. Most samples must be stored at approximately 4°C using insulated boxes with ice packs. If live fish are needed, they can be transported in oxygenated plastic bags or aerated containers.
Samples should ideally arrive at the laboratory within 12 to 24 hours of collection. For extended transit times, special media—such as brain heart infusion broth for bacterial samples or viral transport medium for virology—should be used. Every sample must be accurately labeled with details including collection date, species, location, and observed symptoms. A submission form should accompany the samples, including environmental data and mortality history.

Hard tongue due to fibrous tissue proliferation (termed as wooden tongue) is a characteristic feature.

Swab and smear from abscess and tissue samples including tongue and lymphnodes.

INTRODUCTION

COLLOIDS :  The word colloids has actually been derived from Greek language where it means glue like. The science of colloids was founded about 1861 when Thomas Graham published a summary of his work on the diffusion of substances in solution. He classified substances into two groups, viz: crystalloids and colloids, depending on their ability to diffuse through parchment membrane. According to Graham, crystalloids readily passed through parchment membranes while colloids did not. According to modern concept, colloidal solution contain substances whose molecular aggregates possess a diameter greater than 1 mu  and less than 100 mu. If the particle size is greater than 100 mu, a suspension is obtained (Table 1).

My first experience with Colocasia gigantea (Blume) Hook. f. (Araceae) was one of personal cultural food use. I recently came to Hawai‘i for my Ph.D. studies, and although I am Vietnamese, it was in Hawai‘i that I began experiencing many Vietnamese foods I never knew as a child growing up in the northeastern U.S. I thank the Vietnamese immigrants in Hawai‘i that became my aunties and uncles from whom I learned a great deal about my roots and the food of Vietnam. I listened to their stories and teachings while we ate together at holiday and community events, reflecting on my childhood, and considering the effects of globalization on the movement of people and plants, I have come to understand the extraordinary significance of that seemingly mundane first experience of eating C. gigantea. In this paper, I describe the botany, ethnobotany,  including a case study of C. gigantea usage in Hawai‘i and the implications for biocultural diversity, and examples for increased utilization of C. gigantea.

• Source of colour

• Colour changes in fishes

• Regulation of colour changes

• Significance of colour changes.

The coloration is most well-marked in fishes A large number of fishes are brightly and brilliantly coloured and others are of more uniform and sober shade. On fish body characteristics markings in the form of base strips, spots and blotches etc. coloration is mainly due the skin pigments but the back-ground colour may also be due to the underlying tissues and body fluids. Coloration relates to the life style of the fishes and the patterns so produced have functional significance.

Generally the fishes are darker on their upper surfaces this is because their upper surfaces being exposed to sun light undergo pigmentation, while ventral surface with gradual shading on the sides. Some fish species like the gold fish, carassius exhibit almost uniformly bright colour all over the body. Cave fishes living in total darkness have lost the pigments and grown colourless. Several species of the genera synodontis living in the river of Africa swim in inverted position and so the pigmentation is reversed in them.

Steps in the Estimation of Trace Elements
Estimation of trace elements in feeds and fodders and other biological materials involves the following steps :

    1.    Production of an acidic solution of the inorganic elements in the biological samples after removal of the organic matter by dry ashing or wet oxidation.

    2.    Removal or masking of interfering substances.

    3.    Determination of the selected elements, usually by using colorimetry.

Results of trace elements determinations are expressed as parts per million (ppm), mg/kg or µg/g dry matter.

Introduction

Colorimetry is a scientific technique widely used across various fields to quantify the concentration of substances based on their color intensity. Colorimetry is a branch of analytical chemistry that focuses on measuring the absorbance or transmission of light by colored solutions. It utilizes the principles of optics and spectroscopy to determine the concentration of a substance in a solution based on its color intensity. This technique relies on the Beer-Lambert law, which states that the absorbance of light by a solution is directly proportional to its concentration and path length.

Principles of Colorimetry

The fundamental principle of colorimetry lies in the interaction of light with matter. When light passes through or is reflected off a substance, certain wavelengths are absorbed, while others are transmitted or reflected. The color we perceive is due to the wavelengths of light that are reflected back to our eyes. In colorimetry, a photometric measurement is made using a colorimeter or spectrophotometer, which quantifies the intensity of light absorbed or transmitted by a sample.

Introduction Colostrum feeding • Colostrum is rich source of gamma globulins (antibodies), vitamins and minerals • Colostrum Temp.: 99ºF-102ºF • Colostrum feeding: first 3-5 days. • Whole milk: after 5 days • Feed the total amount of milk at 3 or 4 equal intervals up to the age of 7 days and then twice daily • Quantity of colostrum: 10 % of body weight. • Overfeeding: calf scour/diarrhea. • Around 0.5% of a cow’s yearly milk production is made up of colostrum. • After birth, the amount of immunoglobulins that can be absorbed from colostrum drops by 1/3 as soon as 6 hours, by 2/3 after 12 hours, and an intestinal barrier forms after 24 hours. • Colostrum must be given in sufficient amounts to the newborn calf because during the first 24 hours after parturition, the permeability of the stomach and the concentration of immunoglobulins drop sharply. • Cow colostrum must meet minimum requirements for both immunological and bacteriological characteristics:

Water colour is consequences of the plankton, humus, metal ions (iron and manganese), weeds and peat materials, presence in water. Iron oxides cause reddish color whereas Manganese oxides causes brown or brackish colour in water. Water colour of an aquatic body also indicates the density of planktons. Brownish colouration without any foul smell is an indication of good growth of zooplankton. Phytoplankton or algae are usually green in colour and these green alage in large quantities turn the green color of water. Water color suggests plankton or other aquatic life growth, clear and transparent colour of water indicates low and poor growth of plankton. Brownish green to greenish brown colour of water indicates well for aquaculture.
Principle
Natural waters colour comprising yellow-brownish in appearance. It has been observed that potassium chloroplatinate (K2PtCl2) tinted with small amounts of CoCl2 yield colours that are very much like the natural colours of water. 1 mg/L of Pt (K2PtCl6) produces a standard 1 unit of colour. The intensity of colour increases as pH rises. For this reason recording pH together with colour is advisable.

Poultry industry in India has registered a phenomenal growth during the last four decades making it one among the world leaders in poultry production. The development of organized poultry has in fact masked the contribution of backyard poultry or house-hold poultry of rural sector. Backyard poultry production in India is characterized by small flock size consisting of 5-10 predominantly non-descript birds maintained in extensive system under zero input conditions but fetch the owners much needed animal protein and supplementary income. Importance of backyard poultry is well recognized by Government of India and special programmes are formulated for its promotion.

Non-descript Chicken

Maintaining small flocks of local non-descript fowls under free range condition by landless poor, small and marginal farmers are a common sight in rural areas. These birds are very popular due to their adaptability to local agro climatic conditions and management practices with prominent brooding behaviour and mothering ability. But these birds are small in size, poor layers (40-50 eggs/ annum), with small clutch size and intense brooding behavior, thus making them not suitable for commercial exploitation.

Celite Column Chromatography
(Method of Wiseman and Irvin, 1957)
Principle

Celite columns with an internal indicator have been developed for the quantitative separation of silage and rumen volatile fatty acids ranging from butyric to succinic. The aqueous phase employs minimal amounts of sulphuric acid to prevent retention of organic acids, sugar is added to the phase to increase elution resistance. Aqueous samples, 2 ml or less are added directly to a dry column cap. Eluting solvents are mixtures of acetone and petroleum ether. Single zone collections make possible a reduced number of titrations with increased accuracy. The column permits fairly wide separations of lactic acids, often difficult on silicic acid columns.

The method employs celite with alphamine red R as an internal indicator. A distinctive feature is the use of concentrated sugar solution as the stationary phase to resist leaching action of solvents.

Column chromatography is a separation technique in which the stationary bed is in a tube. The particles of the solid stationary phase or the support coated with a liquid stationary phase may fill the whole inside volume of the tube (packed column) or be concentrated on or along the inside tube wall leaving an open, unrestricted path for the mobile phase through the tube (open tubular column). Differences in rates of movement through the medium are calculated as different retention times of the sample.
 
The separation of compounds in the column chromatography takes place based on the phenomenon of adsorption. Here the substance gets attracted by electrostatic forces to the surface of a unit particle. If the substance is in solution and the particle insoluble in the solvent, then part of the substance is adsorbed and part remains in solution. The ratio between the amount adsorbed and the amount in solution is a constant called adsorption coefficient. The separation takes pace based on the differences in the adsorption coefficients.

Wet litter can be caused by extrinsic or intrinsic factors related to excessive excretion of water. When the moisture content of litter exceeds 35%, it can lead to various issues, including pododermatitis of the foot pads, resulting in poor growth rate in broilers and low fertility in breeder flocks. Wet litter can also contribute to inflammation of the feather follicles. This can lead to gangrenous dermatitis, which is responsible for downgrading at processing or rejection by consumers. Additionally, wet litter is often associated with outbreaks of coccidiosis, as the oocysts of Eimeria spp. require moisture levels over 25% to mature. Necrotic enteritis occurs frequently in houses with areas of wet litter, while damp litter may contribute to the proliferation of toxic fungi.

Abstract

Livelihood of ~80% of rural inhabitants depends upon agriculture that relies upon the prevailing environmental conditions such as water availability and temperature. If unfavorable to the crops, these conditions would impact production and productivity leading to food-insecurity. Various abiotic stresses are generated due to the physiography that includes altitude, topography, edaphic factors, water availability and ecosystem degradation. In spite of the environmental limitations, crops have survived suggesting operation of relevant adaptive mechanisms in the native species. Indeed, novel genetic mechanisms were present and these could be utilized to improve the plant productivity under stress conditions. Also there are issues on the management of abiotic stresses, which need to be addressed. The chapter presents framework and policies on sustaining agriculture production under the situations of abiotic stress to ensure production sustainability by protecting livelihood of the inhabitants. Western Himalaya was deliberately chosen as the focus for discussion.

Introduction

The impacts on the various facets of life – agriculture and food processing – need no longer be addressed in a way that is well established. Nearly every aspect of the planet has shown its effect at different rates, both positively and negatively. As a subtropical region, India is also witnessing different variations in weather and an increase in temperature that affect farming. Only in recent years has the potential to reduce transpiration from plants by the use of chemicals been further explored. These antitranspirants can either control perspiration by filming the leaf surface or by manipulating the aperture of the stomach. Antitranspirants are the materials or chemicals that reduce the water loss from plant leaves by reducing stomata size and number. During transpiration, almost 99 per cent of the water consumed by the plant is lost.

Predatory journals undermine the integrity of academic publishing by charging exorbitant fees without providing rigorous peer review. These deceptive entities exploit the academic community, especially targeting early-career researchers, those from underfunded institutions, and scholars in developing countries. By prioritizing profit over quality, predatory journals erode trust in the research ecosystem, dilute scientific knowledge, and tarnish the reputation of genuine academic endeavors (Fig. 11.1).
This chapter delves into the multifaceted challenges posed by predatory journals and outlines comprehensive strategies for researchers, institutions, and policymakers to combat their pernicious effects.
11.1. Understanding Predatory Journals
Predatory journals are characterized by their lack of transparency, absence of editorial rigor, and aggressive solicitation of authors. They often masquerade as legitimate open-access journals but fail to adhere to the ethical standards of scholarly publishing. Unlike reputable journals, which uphold rigorous peer-review processes to ensure the validity and originality of research, predatory journals accept articles with minimal or no scrutiny. This results in the dissemination of low-quality or even fraudulent research, undermining the credibility of academic literature.
Several red flags can help researchers identify predatory journals. These include:

6.1. Line × tester analysis

A successful approach of crop breeding programme depends on the proper choice of best parents for hybridization and the ideal selection adopted in the early generation. But, the selection of parents for hybridization programme is relatively tough in the case of complex traits like yield and their components as they governed by large number of quantitative genes which are influenced by environments and seasons. Thus, breeders often meet with difficulty to fix in advance the desirable parents which will give superior progenies. In such a situation, knowledge on the nature of gene action on such complex quantitative traits of economic importance is necessary to plan and adopt appropriate selection techniques (Simmonds, 1979) and breeding methodology.

Combining ability analysis gives useful information regarding the selection of parents in terms of the performance of the hybrids. This analysis elucidates the nature and magnitude of various types of gene action involved in the expression of quantitative traits (Dhillon, 1975). Thus, the knowledge of combining ability serves as an useful tool for the selection of plants for hybridization and further exploitation. Combining ability consists of general and specific combining ability.

Sprague and Tatum (1942) defined general combining ability (gca) as the “average performance of a line in hybrid combinations” and specific combining ability (sca) “as those cases in which certain combinations do relatively better of worse than would be expected on the basis of the average performance of the lines involved. The general combining ability provides an indication of the importance of genes of largely additive in nature, while specific combining ability indicates the importance of non-additive gene effects.

Several biometrical techniques are available to estimate the general combining ability of parents and specific combining ability of hybrids. Among them, line × tester analysis is extensively used both in self and cross pollinated crops. The advantage of line × tester analysis is that a large number of inbred lines can be evaluated than diallel analysis. Besides, it provides additional information on the performance of the specific hybrids on gene action in contrast to top cross or polycross. The line × tester analysis is an efficient biometrical approach for assessing the combining ability of parents and hybrids (Kempthorne, 1957).

Family Combretaceae contains about 20 genera and 600 species distributed mainly in the tropical and sub-tropical countries of the world (Rahate et al., 2019). Eight genera and about 45 species of this family have been reported from India, chiefly from Assam and West Bengal. Combretum and Terminalia are two largest genera of the family. Lumnitzera littoria is found as a mangrove plant in Sundanban and other tidal forests of India.
Terminalia bellirica is tall tree and leaves clustered near ends of branches. Flowers are small, pale green, arise in simple spikes. Fruit is ovoid, 3 cm long, brownish & densely covered with hairs and contains 5-17 per cent tannins. Unripe fruit is used as astringent but ripe fruit is purgative. Fruit powder is used as tonic & laxative and useful in piles, leprosy, dropsy and fever. Fruit of T. chebula is astringent and laxative. Roasted fruits are used to treat cough, chronic ulcer, wounds & scalds, used in dyeing and tanning purposes, fruit decoction is used in bleeding and ulceration of gums
Description of Family
1. General habit: A family of exclusively arborescent taxa, consisting of tall trees or woody twiners of lianas, such as Combretum and Quisqualis.
2. Stem: Solid with large mucilaginous sacs and abundant tannin.
3. Leaves: Simple, alternate or sometimes opposite (Quisqualis); exstipulate; margin entire.

To achieve maximum possible irrigation efficiencies, there are two approaches.

Modernization of conveyance system down below the reservoirs upto government controlled outlet. Involves mainly the construction and maintenance of head sluices, main canals, branch canals, and distributaries (Modernization of supplier’s side or system level development works)

Modernization below the government controlled outlets upto the drains (Modernization of user’s side or farm level development works). Also known as On-Farm Development Works (OFD).

Introduction

Dairy is vital to the economics of many developing countries. Animals are a source of food, more specifically protein for human diets, income, employment and possibly foreign exchange. For low income producers, dairy can serve as a store of wealth; provide draught power and organic fertilizer for crop production and a means of transport. Consumption of dairy and dairy products in developing countries, though starting from a low base, is growing rapidly. Dairying has become an important secondary source of income for millions of rural families and has assumed a most important role in providing employment and income generating opportunity. Indian Dairying is unique in more than one ways. It ranks first with its 199.1 million cattle & 105.3 million buffaloes accounting for about 51 percent of Asia’s and about 19 per cent of world’s bovine population. It also ranks first in milk production with a production of 121.8 million tones in 2010-11 and the demand is expected to be 180 million tones by 2020. To achieve this demand annual growth rate in milk production has to be increased from the present 2.5 % to 5%. Thus, there is a tremendous scope/potential for increasing the milk production through profitable dairy farming. Besides milk, the manure from animals provides a good source of organic matter for improving soil fertility and crop yields.

Introduction
By 2050, experts anticipate the world’s population will surpass 9 billion, resulting in a 70 percent increase in the need for food, feed, and fiber. This increase will coincide with significant lifestyle and consumption shifts primarily driven by urbanization. A notable decline in the consumption of grains and pulses is anticipated, while there will be a marked increase in the intake of vegetables, fruits, meat, dairy, and fish. With its long-standing contribution to human nutrition, aquaculture is key in supplying high-quality proteins (Nash 2010; Gui et al., 2018). As the population grows, resource scarcity and environmental degradation become increasingly urgent. The necessity for land resources to meet societal demands has turned attention toward oceans as a critical frontier for human survival. Fish, in particular, are emerging as an important source of high-quality protein for the human food (Baiden et al., 2007). Over the last few decades, aquaculture has developed into the very fastest developing in the agricultural sector. In 2020, fisheries production surpassed 60 percent of what was recorded in the 1990s, driven
by an unprecedented aquaculture output of 122.6 million metric tons (MT (FAO 2022). Given this context, aquaculture and fisheries are expected to be pivotal in ensuring global nutritional security (Subasinghe, 2017). Fish provide around 20% of the world’s animal protein, serving as a healthy option for wealthier populations due to their high polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content. Simultaneously, small indigenous fish species are vital for the nutrition of lower socioeconomic groups, offering essential proteins, oils, vitamins, and minerals (Mohanty et al., 2010). Worldwide, the fishing and aquaculture industries play a crucial role in enhancing nutrition and sustaining economies. These sectors provide vital nutrients to approximately 3 billion individuals and constitute more than half of the animal protein consumed by 400 million people in economically disadvantaged areas. Fisheries and aquaculture play a crucial role in the livelihoods of over 500 million individuals in developing nations. The growth of aquaculture has been particularly noteworthy, with an annual growth rate of 7%, and fish products account for over 37 percent of the global food trade by volume. As wild fish stocks continue to decline, the cultivation of aquatic species, such as fish, crustaceans, mollusks, and aquatic plants, has become a cornerstone of the global seafood supply. As concerns rise over future food shortages and increasing prices, Fish farming and other forms of aquaculture serve as dependable sources of vital nutrients and protein, playing a significant role in enhancing global food availability and supporting efforts to combat malnutrition worldwide. Furthermore, the sector fosters promoting rural development by creating employment opportunities and enhancing local economic initiatives .In response to the rising demand for aquatic products, significant increases in aquaculture production will be necessary. Biotechnology offers a range of tools to facilitate the sustainable growth of aquaculture, fisheries, and the broader food sector. With the growing public demand for seafood and the degradation of marine habitats, researchers are increasingly focused on biotechnological solutions to enhance marine food production. This positions aquaculture as a rapidly evolving field of research (Melamed et al., 2002). Through biotechnology, researchers can identify and merge genetic characteristics in aquatic organisms to enhance their productivity and quality. Current research emphasizes identifying genes that enhance natural growth

Introduction

The floriculture industry in India is characterized by growing traditional flowers (loose flowers) and cut flowers under open field conditions and protected environment conditions, respectively. India also has a strong dry flower industry, which contributes a major share to the overall trade. Other segments like fillers, potted plants, seeds and planting material, turf grass industry and value added products also contribute a share in the overall growth of the floriculture sector. 

Area and Production

With the rise in people’s investment in flower purchase for gifts at social ceremonies or for home decoration, the focus shifted to production of cut flowers too. The fresh increase in the area under flowers is more for cut flower production, but not necessarily at the cost of loose flower production.
A large share of the total world production area is in India. With an estimated area of 1,60,000 ha (2007-08), India perhaps is the largest production base in the world. The last decade and a half has witnessed significant increase in the area under flowers, which has tripled from 53,000 ha (1993-94). 
(Fig. 1).

Commercial Crop Breeding

The term commercial crop breeding is straightaway equivalent to ‘commercial plant breeding’ and remains largely plant breeding with slight twist that commercial plant breeding aims at delivering commercial products to be delivered to the end users that is the farmers as per the need of the consumers/ markets. Thus, the farmers plant those products (open-pollinated cultivars and hybrids) which are easily accepted by the consumers and which are easy to be handled by the traders as the products reach to the traders and then from traders to the retailers and ultimately to the consumers.

Abstract

In recent years the quest for improving the quality of life has ventured into many aspects of utilizing plants for the aesthetic sense. One such is an increased utilization of flowers /flowering plants for beautification of homes, offices, gardens etc. The increased interest in use of cut flowers has brought challenge of bringing in varieties of natural flowers from different sources. India’s rich biodiversity also contributes addition of lot of new species to the cut flower industry. Banana and Plantains have been revered only for their utility as dessert fruit or staple food. But aesthetic dimension has never been much explored. Musa comprises more than 50 species and sub species traversed across the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. Musa Ornata is one such plant, native to north eastern regions of India, belongs to the family Musaceae and section Rhodochlamys. It draws its attention by virtue of its bright inflorescence and its long lasting nature. It is a medium statured plant, hence suitable for gardens also. It is a fertile wild species, multiplies mainly through suckers and through seeds to some extent.

Commercial farming is an increasingly vital component of agricultural development strategies in many states. State governments often implement various livelihood models aimed at promoting commercial farming to enhance agricultural productivity, boost local economies, and improve farmers’ livelihoods. Here are some common commercial farming-based livelihood models that state governments may employ:
1. Cooperative Farming
• Description: Farmers form cooperatives to pool resources, share equipment, and access larger markets. This model strengthens bargaining power and reduces costs.
• Government Role: States may provide technical assistance, financial support, and facilitate access to markets.
2. Contract Farming
• Description: Farmers enter into agreements with corporations or buyers for the production of specific crops. This model often guarantees a market for the farmers’ produce.
• Government Role: Facilitation of contracts, monitoring compliance, and providing legal support.
3. Agribusiness Incubators
• Description: Establishing incubators to support startups in the agricultural sector, providing mentorship, training, and resources for innovative farming techniques.
• Government Role: Funding, infrastructure support, and partnerships with educational institutions.

The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed various commercial farming-based livelihood models to enhance the income of farmers, promote sustainable agricultural practices, and improve the overall
socio-economic conditions in rural areas. While specific models may vary by region and crop, here are some key features and themes observed in ICAR’s initiatives:
1. Integrated Farming System (IFS) Models
The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) has developed a wide range of Integrated Farming System (IFS) models tailored to various agroclimatic zones of India. These models aim to enhance farm productivity,
ensure sustainable livelihood, and improve resource use efficiency by integrating different components like crops, livestock, poultry, fishery, horticulture, agroforestry, etc.
Key Objectives of ICAR’s IFS Models
• Enhance income and employment from small and marginal holdings.
• Ensure year-round productivity and food security.
• Recycle resources within the farm to minimize external input dependency.
• Promote sustainability through organic integration and ecological balance.

The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) plays a pivotal role in strengthening India’s rural economy by facilitating credit flow, infrastructure development, and livelihood enhancement in agriculture
and allied sectors. Among its many initiatives, the promotion of commercial farming-based livelihood models stands out as a dynamic and sustainable approach to empower rural communities—especially small and marginal
farmers, tribal populations, and rural women. These livelihood models are scientifically designed, economically viable, and socially inclusive, aiming to generate income, create rural employment, and ensure food and nutritional security. They also align with national programs like the Doubling Farmers’ Income mission, National Livestock Mission, PM Matsya Sampada Yojana, and the Agri-Infra Fund.
The National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) in India has been instrumental in promoting sustainable agricultural practices and enhancing rural livelihoods through various commercial farming-based
livelihood models. These models aim to empower farmers, increase production efficiency, and ensure better income through diversified agricultural practices. Here are some of the notable initiatives and models promoted by NABARD:
1. Dairy Farming as a Commercial Livelihood
Dairy farming is one of the most prominent models promoted by NABARD. Small dairy units with 2–10 crossbred cows or buffaloes are encouraged under schemes such as the Dairy Entrepreneurship Development Scheme
(DEDS). These units produce milk daily, generating regular income, and provide by-products like dung for compost or biogas. NABARD facilitates credit through banks and provides back-ended subsidies, especially for SHGs, youth, and women farmers. Technical training on fodder management, disease control, and scientific milking practices is also provided.

Across India, various NGOs have developed and implemented innovative commercial farming-based livelihood models aimed at improving the economic status of rural communities. These models often focus on sustainable
agricultural practices, value addition, and market linkages. Here are a few noteworthy examples:
1. BAIF Development Research Foundation
• BAIF has implemented programs focused on dairy farming, agroforestry,  and watershed management. They provide training, resource support, and market access to farmers, optimizing their income through diversified
agricultural activities.
2. Pradan (Professional Assistance for Development Action):
• Pradan works primarily in tribal and backward regions, focusing on enhancing agricultural productivity and promoting non-farm livelihoods. They encourage the use of traditional knowledge, organic farming, and community-based seed banks, facilitating sustainable farming practices.
3. Sambhaavnaa Institute of Public Policy
• This organization focuses on promoting organic farming and the production of high-value crops. They empower local farmers by training them in organic agriculture techniques, enhancing market access for their produce, and developing cooperatives for collective bargaining.

Though India is one of the major fish producing countries in the world, it has no history regarding technical and academic training in fisheries. India has to tackle simultaneously the long range problem of establishing a regular fisheries educational system as one of its fisheries policies for ensuring a reserve of large number trained persons. The short range problem of providing specialized training to the large number of in service personal, who were not basically qualified in all aspect of fisheries had been planned. Therefore, the government of India and the state Governments had put in considerable effort to solve problem of shortage of technical person as by organizing a number of fisheries training institutions in the country at different levels. A few universities are also providing training in fisheries leading to degrees in fisheries.

The following are the main fisheries training institutions which are giving special training in fisheries in India: