eChapters

India has emerged as the largest producer of milk in the World. This has boosted the confidence of producers, planners, dairy entrepreneurs and scientist alike. India has poised to play a major role in global dairy market in coming decade. The rapid growth of science and technology has positive impact on our life style and with strong trend of urbanization several demographic changes are likely to occur. There going to be ever increasing demand on the role of milk and milk products for human health. Accordingly, the demand for higher standards of milk products in terms of hygiene and safety of dairy products is to be followed. The competitiveness for the export of milk products among different dairy industry has increased in recent times due to GATT agreement. The biggest challenge before Indian dairy industry is the quality and safety of milk products indented for human consumption. Legal standards are made to have control over quality of food offered for sale and to safe guard the consumer form health hazards. It is therefore, imperative to determine different parameters that define product quality and safety. The purpose is to ensure production and distribution of products within well defined and accepted standards. This chapter deals with various parameters of product testing in order to maintain requisite prescribed standards.

Soil is a living system and soil fertility is the key to agricultural productivity. Any input that destroys this living system and undermines soil health basically undermines the agricultural productivity. The maintenance of the fertility of soil is the primary step in any permanent system of agriculture.

Fertile land and sufficient water are vital for sustaining agriculture and livelihoods. Fertility of a soil is defined by its ability to provide all essential nutrients in adequate quantities and in the proper balance for the growth of plants – independent of direct application of nutrients – when other growth factors like light, temperature and water are favorable. This ability does not depend on the nutrient content of the soil only, but on its efficiency in transforming nutrients within the farm’s nutrient circle.

In transformation of nutrients soil organisms play a key role. They break down biomass from crop residues, green manures and mulch and contribute to build up of soil organic matter, including humus, the soil’s most important nutrient reservoir. They also play an essential role in transferring nutrients from the soil organic matter to the mineral stage, which is available to plants. Soil organisms also protect plants from disease and make the soil crumbly.

A fertile soil is easy to work, absorbs rainwater well, and is robust against siltation and erosion. It filters rain water and supplies us with clean drinking water. It neutralizes (buffers) acids, which pass through contaminated air to the soil surface, and decomposes pollutants such as pesticides rapidly. And last but not least a fertile soil is an efficient storage for nutrients and CO₂. In this way a fertile soil prevents the eutrophication of rivers, lakes and oceans and contributes to the reduction of global warming.

In the context of biological agriculture soil fertility is thus primarily the result of biological processes, not of chemical nutrients. A fertile soil is in active exchange with the plants, restructures itself and is capable of regeneration. The biological properties can be observed in the soil’s conversion activity, in the presence and the visible traces of the organisms in it. The communities of microorganisms are robust and active at the right moment. In the self-regulating ecological equilibrium animals, plants and microorganisms all work for each other.

It is the responsibility of farmers to understand soil ecology to the point that they can create or restore the conditions for a robust balance in the soil. If a soil does not regularly bring good yields, farmers should investigate the reasons for it.

1. Introduction

Fruits and vegetables have been an integral part of man’s diet from immemorial times. Fruits are the portions of plants that bear seeds, while vegetables are the edible components of a plant, including the leaves, stalks, roots, tubers, bulbs, flowers and seeds. These can be eaten raw or cooked. Fruits and vegetables can be preserved for short-term intervals under refrigeration, with or without receiving a minimal treatment like slicing, chopping, shredding or peeling. Fresh produce may also be irradiated or packaged in controlled or modified atmosphere in films for short-term storage. Long-term preservation includes canning, juicing, drying and addition of preservatives. Food contamination with hazardous biological agents remains a worldwide challenge in food safety and nutrition (Kenny 2002; Schlundt 2002; Tauxe et al 1997). Microorganisms form part of the epiphytic flora of fruits and vegetables and many will be present at the time of consumption. Production practices, growth conditions and the location of the edible part during growth (soil, soil surface, aerial part) will in combination with intrinsic, extrinsic, harvesting and processing factors affect their microbial status at the time of consumption. Man-made sources may be directly from farm laborers and from the equipment used for harvesting or storage. The types of microorganisms on fruits and vegetables would also vary with the orchards, vineyards or growing fields. The resident microflora normally subsists on the slight traces of carbohydrates, proteins and inorganic salts that dissolve in the water exuding from or condensing on the epidermis of the host. The numbers of bacteria present will vary depending on seasonal and climatic variation and may range from 104 to 108 per gram. The inner tissues of fruits and vegetables are usually regarded as sterile (Lund 1992). However bacteria can be present in low numbers in the insides of the fruits and vegetables as a result of the uptake of water through certain irrigation or washing procedures.

2.1 Introduction

Consider two linear equations in two variables i.e., x and y, such that equations are

1.     What is IPM
    
2.    What is a Pest
    
3.    Importance of Crops in IPM
    
4.    Impact of Environment in IPM
    
5.    Crop Stage Specific IPM
    
6.    Management Practices
    
7.    Tropical Tuber Crops
    
8.    Ornamental Plants
    
9.    Medicinal Plants
    
10.    Aromatic Plants
    
11.    Plantation Crops
    
12.    Masticatory
    
13.     Spices
    
14.    Fruit Crops
    
15.    Vegetables
        
References

8.1    History of Sprinkler Irrigation
    
8.2    Advantage and Limitations of Sprinkler Irrigation
    
8.3    Scope of Sprinkler Irrigation in India
    
8.4    Type of Sprinkler System and Components
    
8.5    Design of Sprinkler Irrigation System
        
Questions and Problems
        
References

The chemicals, which can destroy pests or prevent their occurrence by their chemical action are known as ‘Pesticides’. Pesticides include ‘insecticides’, acaricides’, ‘nematicides’, rodenticides’, molluscicides’ etc., which are used to destroy insect pests, mites, nematodes, rodents, slugs and snails respectively. Pesticides have been used even before the time when man never knew how to read and write. Even before 200 BC, several substances were known to control pests. Sulfur, arsenic poisons, fluorine poisons, as well as some plant extracts and oils were used to control pests. However, these substances could destroy only a few specific pests only to some extent.

Advances in the invention of pesticides

The invention of many of the present day pesticides started only after 1867. ‘Paris green’, a synthetic chemical was the first pesticide used to control the ‘Colorodo beetles’ of potato. Up to 1939, only a few inorganic chemical compounds and plant poisons were used as pesticides. Only after the Second World War much advances were made in chemical research. After the invention of DDT in 1939, a revolution had started in the field of pest control. Following the introduction of DDT, several other pesticides were identified and introduced for pest control. In 1941, BHC was invented by the British and French scientists. During the same period, organophosphorus pesticides were invented by the German scientists and parathion, malathion, demeton etc. were introduced.

ABSTRACT

Plasmids are circular, double-stranded DNA molecules which replicate autonomously from the chromosome of the host organism. Plasmids are found in many bacterial species and often confer upon the host cell phenotypic characteristics such as resistance to antibiotics, resistance to heavy metals, ability to produce particular protiens, conjugative (mating) ability and ability to degrade xenobiotc compounds. One of these degradative plasmids may encode a complete catabolic pathway (such as toluene to pyruvate, formate and acetaldehyde) or partial degradative steps, such as octane to octanol. In this later case, the remainder of the pathway may be encoded by chromosomal genes, by genes of other plasmid present in the host, or by other microorganisms. Many degradative plasmids possess a broad host range, especially among the gram-negative bacterial species.

There are different mechanisms which may be involved in the evolution of aromatic pathways in general and in the process of adaptation of microorganisms to xenobiotic substrates in particular. Gene transfer, the occurrence of plasmids in bacteria in the natural environment is an important pool of genetic information residing on plasmid vehicles may flow among indigenous microorganisms. Since many examples of self-transmissible plasmids that carry genes for degradation of aromatic or other xenobiotic compounds are known, and their role in spreading these genes to other microorganisms is well characterized. Early, studies of TOL, NAH, and SAL plasmids revealed strong homologies among these plasmids in regions both inside and outside the catabolic gene clusters. Plasmids, pJP4, pAC25, and PSS50, catabolic plasmids carrying genes for chloroaromatic degradation, have strongly homologous plasmid backbone that determine replication and transfer function. Furthermore, the chlorobenzoate plasmid p51 was also shown to be homologous to pJP4 outside regions of the catabolic genes. These observations suggest that a few common self-transmissible ancestor replicons (includes origin of replication and replication gene) may have been involved in acquisition and spread of different catabolic genes. DNA

Important Points to Remember

• The word ‘Extension’ is derived from Latin roots ‘ex’ and ‘tensio’.
• The use of the term ‘Extension’ originated in England in 1866 with a system of University extension which was taken up first by Cambridge and then Oxford Universities.
• James Stuart is considered as father of University Extension.
• Dr. K.N. Singh is known as father of Extension in India.
• Agricultural extension operates within a broader knowledge system that includes research and agricultural education.

It all started after the famous lecture, “There is plenty of room at the bottom” given by Richard Feynman on December 29, 1959. Nanomaterials are intermediate between macroscopic solid and of atomic and molecular systems. Nanomaterials have certain properties which make them different from that of the bulk materials, including large fraction of surface atoms, high surface energy, spatial confinement, and reduced imperfections. Nanotechnology deals with various structures of matter having dimensions of the order of a billionth of a meter (Ray Unmesha. 2018). From the advent of nanotechnology, people realized that certain materials can exhibit different properties based on its size and shape.
 

Postharvest loss of fruits and vegetables is defined as “that weight of wholesome edible product (exclusive of moisture content) that is normally consumed by human and that has been separated from the medium and sites of its immediate growth and production by deliberate human action with the intention of using it for human feeding but which for any reasons fails to be consumed by human.” Not only quantity and quality but even the appearance of fruits and vegetables are affected, and their market value is reduced. Most ‘skin deep’ injuries such as ‘fly speck’ in apples do not affect the edible part. Some infections are not harmful as they occur on inedible parts and can be trimmed off before consumption ego Colletotrichum spots on the outer leaves of cabbage]. Fresh fruits and vegetables are perishable and highly prone to these losses because they are composed of living tissues. These tissues must be kept alive and health throughout the process of marketing. These are composed of thousands of living cells which require care and maintenance (Alao, 2000). The pathological rots are the most serious which is followed by mechanical injury. Pathological rots in combination with mechanical damage cause serious damage to the perishables. Environmental factors such as temperature, relative humidity and oxygen balance most especially during storage are also greatly responsible for damage also environmental conditions such as temperature and humidity are responsible for rendering fruits and vegetables susceptible for pathological attacks (Yahaya and Mardiyya, 2019). Fungi and bacteria are the major pathogens, which cause postharvest diseases in crops leading to about 30 % loss. Normally diseases will be more at improper temperature and relative humidity. Apart from causing disease, pathogens are also involved in ethylene production, which hastens the deterioration of the product.

Nematodes are invertebrate roundworms that inhabit marine, freshwater and terrestrial environments. They comprise the phylum Nematoda or Nemata, which includes parasites of plants and of animals, including humans, as well as species that feed on bacteria, fungi, algae, and on other nematodes. Four out of every five multicellular animals on the planet are nematodes. All nematodes may look alike, the smallest being scaled down versions of the largest. The phrase tube-within-a-tube is a convenient way to think of nematode body structure and also a term used to refer to a major trend in the evolution of triploblastic metazoa. It refers to the development of a fluid-filled cavity between the outer body wall and the digestive tube. The nature of this body cavity has led to the grouping of metazoa into three grades, acoelomate, pseudocoelomate and eucoelomate. Nematodes together with Rotifera, Gastrotricha, Kinorhyncha, Nematomorpha, Acanthocephala and Entoprocta are traditionally grouped together as pseudocoelomates on the basis of possessing a body cavity that is not formed from the mesoderm or fully lined by peritoneum.

Crops belonging to family Cucurbitaceae are generally known as ‘Cucurbits’. It consists of a wide range of vegetables either used for salad purpose (cucumber) or for cooking (all gourds), pickling (West Indian gherkin) or as dessert fruit (muskmelon, water melon) or candied or preserved (ash gourd). As a group, cucurbits occupy the largest area in India and in other tropical countries. Its use is not primarily because of calories, minerals or vitamins since they are generally low to moderate in nutrients with a few exceptions like bitter gourd (rich in vitamin C- 96mg/100g), pumpkin (vitamin A 1600 IU/100g), Kakrol (high protein 3.1g/100g,), parwal and chow chow (calcium- 531 mg and 140 mg / 100 g respectively). From the nutritional point of view, cucurbit seeds are valued for their high oil and protein contents. Seed proteins of cucurbits are comparable to that of legumes and are richer in methionine.

The family Cucurbitaceae comprises about 117 genera and 825 species in warmer parts. Chakravarthy (1982) estimated 36 genera and 100 species in India.

1. Multiple Choice Questions

INTRODUCTION

Cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale L.), in the current global scenario, has attained the status of economically important crop with considerable export potential. Ancient sea route traders have been responsible for the spread of cashew from Brazil, its native, to other parts of tropical and sub tropical regions. In the rainforest areas with hot and humid regions of North east Brazil that the people from the long past knew to roast and use the cashew kernels. The owning of cashew trees meant the wealth, prosperity and social status of the family even in those days around 1500 AD in Tropical American region. The commercial importance of cashew nuts was not aggressively known at the time of its initial introduction into Asian and African countries.

Introduction

The biological systems on the earth are in a dynamic equilibrium. In this attempt to live comfortably man disturbs this equilibrium in many, one of which is the cultivation of crop plants to meet his requirements for food, clothing and shelter. Intensive and extensive n of crop plants provides not only better crops but also better ties for pests and diseases to attack these crops. The greater loss due to the pests and diseases, the greater the attempt to these damages. Bacteria are one of the important disease since time immemorial. Bacteria are found in every ble habitat. They are unicellular, but display a variety of ‘cal forms.

The present investigation on the botanicals  has been aimed at preparation of different types of aqueous extracts of locally available medicinal plants viz., Datura stramonium (Datura), Ricinus Castor), Vitex trifolia (Nirgudi) and Nerium indicum (Kanher); the study concentration and stability of these extracts at room temperature; and evaluation of their anti-bacterial activities. This study will be helpful to preserve and increase the pest management potency and efficiency of plant derived products.

The term enzyme was coined in 1878 by Friedrich Wilhelm Kuhne to designate these biological catalysts that had previou-sly been called ferments. As they quicken most of the chemical reactions occurr-ing in the body, the enzymes have been designated as the “manifestations of nature’s impatience”.

Indian seed market is one of the largest in the world and entire supply is through almost locally produced seed. The value of currently marketed seed (excluding the major share of seed saved and used by the farmers) is about USD1 billion (Rs.4500/crore). Of this, roughly a third includes the traded seed making the seed business worth about Rs. 1500 crore. This figure is likely to touch Rs. 4500 crore (USD 1 billion) crore mark by 2010. In comparison to about USD 1 billion seed business in India, the worldwide market of seed is worth about USD 21 billion. The global pesticide market is worth USD 35 billion. These values, however, are much smaller in comparison to global sale of pharmaceuticals worth USD 466 billion.