eChapters

3.1. Introduction 

Calves are the future replacement stock of dairy farm. The raising of calves, an important operation of the dairy farm requires a great deal of managemental skill, application and constant attention. Any negligency results in increased calf mortality, poor growth and development of the calves. So, care of the calves is important for success of the dairy farm.

2.1. Introduction

A system of housing is more or less synonymous to the system of management of dairy cattle. Housing is essential to protect the animals from extreme climatic conditions, wild animals and theft. Housing also helps to maintain normal health of the animal by proper feeding, watering and reducing environmental stresses. An efficient housing system ultimately leads to an efficient management and reduce labour requirements to the minimum.

1.1. Introduction

Dairy animal production in the last few decades witnessed tremendous growth throughout the world. The remarkable success of the dairy animal production can be attributed to the constant efforts of researcher, planner as well as producer. At present dairy farming is becoming a commercial activity. Hi-tech dairy farms produce high quality milk for making value added milk products for competitive markets around the world. The management of the dairy farming enterprises is crucial for the sustainability and profitability of it. The effective management of dairy animals essentially emphasizes the following areas:

2.1 Introduction

Rain and snow are the two chief sources of water of the earth. In-situ conservation of rainwater helps the plants to meet some of their consumptive uses directly. Not all the amount of rainwater that falls at a point is conserved by the soil reservoir to support the plant growth. Some part of it flows over the soil surface as surface runoff and some seeps down as infiltration and finally adds to the under ground reservoir. Therefore, rain or snow, which is not used directly by the plants, becomes a potential source of either surface or ground water for irrigation. In areas with extreme low temperature, snow contributes major source of water supply wherever, in humid and sub humid regions, rain is the principal source. Precipitation, rain or snow, is the first stage of the continual cycle of water in its round from atmosphere to the earth and return by evaporation from water bodies, snow surfaces and land surfaces. The continual cycle of distribution of water is governed by the process called as hydrologic cycle. Thus, precipitation or atmospheric water is the first form of water above the earth’s surface, the second form being the surface water on earth and the third form is the subsurface water or underground water. The study of occurrence, distribution and circulation of precipitation through the unending hydrologic cycle forms the basic part of study of hydrology. As mentioned above, the part of precipitation that is not used by the plants in-situ flows over the soil surface as runoff and contributes to either surface or ground water supply.

Abstract

India’s climate policy and its stand in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) have developed through a complex and contradictory interactions between global pressures to take actions in the field of climate change, India’s foreign policy orientation, its environmental practices and various other national factors. India has been under growing pressure from the major developed economies and also from many small developing countries to play a leading role in mitigating climate change in keeping with its economic and political importance. National factors, including the very important consideration of maintaining rapid GDP growth, favours a conservative approach, with emphasis on expanding India’s share of global climate space. India ranks high on global climate change vulnerability because of its 7,500 Kilometre-long coastline, high dependence of its agriculture on monsoon, decreasing availability of freshwater and over-exploitation of ground water resources, presence of large population in cyclone-prone areas, low lying river deltas and fragile ecosystems like partially submerged lands, and not least, because of melting of the Himalayan glaciers, which feed close to 70 percent of India’s river waters. In 2008, India formulated a National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) under international obligations. India’s climate policy has always been the preserve of a small group of individuals protected from societal influence and unaccountable to the public at large. Indian policy makers claim to speak on behalf of those very people who have been consciously excluded from democratic and participatory decision-making. The industrialised economies reluctant to own up to their climate obligation only breeds more cynicism within the Indian society. Whatever the outcome of international conventions on climate change or any kind of global negotiations in the immediate future, India cannot afford to give up on the serious issue of climate change.

Keywords: Climate change, Economics, Policy, Agriculture

Introduction

Urbanization, a vital global phenomenon, refers to the process of city establishment and growth; the term commonly connotes population increase in the city from internal growth and immigration as well as their spatial expansion (Revi, 2007). Recent developments, uncontrolled population growth have been linked with the process of urbanization. Urban areas cover 3% of the global land but it gives shelter to nearly 26% of the global population (U.S. De, 2009). Increase in population growth and industrialization is posing threat to natural resources such as land air and water. Anthropogenic factors have led to change in land use pattern, high energy consumption, high level of generation of waste etc. As per UN survey, by 2050, approximately 70 percent of the global population will be living in cities (UN, World Urbanization Prospects, 2014). Unplanned growth is damaging the existing ecosystems along with that causing climate change and loss of biodiversity.

Introduction

In the recent years, climate change emerged as the single most pressing problem globally, and accordingly received an increased attention (Berrang-Ford et al., 2011). It is evident that human activities are responsible for the climate change. Natural processes may also lead to climate variability and change. The climate change forecasts resulted from simulation models indicate that the future climate is likely to turn into more capricious nature with more occurrences of extreme events (IPCC, 2013b). Future projections according to the World Bank (2010) reveal the need of raising food production by 1.8% per annum between 2005 and 2050 due to climate change rather than 1% per annum if there were no impact of climate change. The effect of climate change can be seen on the quantity and quality of various components in the global hydrologic cycle (Milly et al., 2005; Bates et al., 2008).

In South Asia, vulnerabilities to the climate change are the largest in semi-arid and arid countries, where rainfall is concentrated over a few monsoon months, year to year variations are high, and where water resources are decreasing (Lenton, 2004). Cruz et al. (2007) indicated that climate trends and variability can be characterized by increased air temperatures, which are more pronounced during the winters compared to the summers. Across the entire Asia, both spatial and temporal variability in rainfall trends observed during the past few decades may be attributed to climate change. It is likely to happen that climate change will extend the dry season when negligible or very low flows occur, which particularly affects the water management process due to inability to rely on water storage reservoirs or groundwater resources situated at great depths (Giertz et al., 2006).

Abstract

Women are amoungst one of the most vulnerable groups, being impacted by climate change. Socio- cultural barriers and traditionally ascribed roles make them the key person responsible for arranging primary resources such as fuel, water, food which face a serious threat from environmental stresses such as climate change. Women with the potential in terms of experience and a strong body of indigenous knowledge to combat the increased disaster risks enable their families to cope with climate change. To deal with these stressful situations women both at the local and global level adopt various coping strategies. The coping strategies adopted by them generally involves considerable amount of risk taking as they interfered not only with the household work but also with their income generating activities, education of girls and other opportunities for skill development. This chapter gives a comprehensive view of the gendered impact of climate change, as well as the coping strategies of women. The chapter also highlights the need of developing coping mechanisms into adaptive mechanism and strategies to provide a sustainable solution to deal with the issue of climate change.

Keywords: Coping strategies, Climate change, Gendered impact, Women

Abstract

Climatic variability with respect to total annual precipitation, mean maximum and mean minimum temperature as well as phytosociological characteristics of various herbaceous plant species of two distinct landscapes, ie, BudhaPushkar (BP) as sandy and Nasirabad Valley (NV) as rocky gravel, of Central Aravalli region was compared over a long period of time (1957-2012). Analysis of climatic data indicates reduction of total precipitation of 50 years by 1226.2 mm. There has been a ‘shift’ in monsoon season. However, a significant increase (36.8%) in precipitation was noticed during the winter season of last five decades. Data on total mean maximum temperature also showed significant variation. A rise of 2.5⁰C was recorded while compared the periods 1971-1990 and 1991-2011. Study showed a notable increase in the mean maximum and mean minimum temperature in the region. An assessment of changes in plant diversity at two landscapes was carried out over a period of 35 years (1976 and 2012). The phytosociological characteristics were compared for these selected years. It was observed that climatic variability have changed the order of dominants and other species with respect to frequency, density and IVI of herbaceous species at both BP and NV landscapes. Total number of species increase for BP landscape while decreased for NV stands, while numbers of invasive species are increased for both the landscapes over a period of 35 years.

Keywords: Climatic variability, Plant diversity, Central Aravalli region, Landscapes, Phytosociological characteristics

Abstract

While multiple species interact with each other in variable environments, they employ a variety of interaction strategies to withstand variation in environmental conditions. Phenotypic plasticity is one such mean allowing species to cope with environmental challenges often posed by the variation in consumer pressure, disturbances, and predation risks. In response to these and other environmental cues, expressed phenotypes can alter the sign and strength of interactions among species as these responses are often reflected in increased or decreased species competitive or facilitative abilities. Besides phenotypic plasticity, species interactions also depend on continued variation in abundances or densities of interacting species commonly termed as density-dependent interactions. Such density-dependence follows the law of diminishing returns, which means that while an individual species adds a density-dependent weight to the performance of other species, with increasing accounts, at a certain level of interaction it provides diminishing returns resulting in decreased population growth of the species. Thus, species interactions in variable environments hold two interdependent opposing forces: the growth-escalating and the growth-diminishing forces. The first one is resulted from adaptive phenotypic responses to variable environments and the second one is resulted from dynamic changes of abundances or densities of interacting species. Based on this conceptual framework, we describe community dynamics that are shaped by the balance of these two forces in variable environment. By analyzing these dynamics, we then seek underlying mechanism of Grim’s classic humped-back model of productivity-diversity relationship and also provide an alternative explanation for the intermediate disturbance hypothesis.

Keywords: Competition, Facilitation, Functional niche, Interaction continuum, Phenotypic plasticity.

Abstract

Climate variability/change is one of the very significant concerns discussed in the recent two decades. Its impact on air temperature and precipitation has received massive attention worldwide as they affect both the spatial and temporal patterns of water availability. Hence, it is becoming clearer that analysis of trends in air temperature and rainfall is significant in studying the impacts of climate variability/change for water resources planning and management. Therefore, the aim of the study was to detect theannual, seasonal and monthly trends in air temperature and rainfall in the Râmgangâ river basin. Daily air temperature (Bareilly and Moradabad) and rainfall data (Shahajahanpur, Bareilly, Bareilly BPO and Moradabad)of 40 years (1971 to 2010) were used for the study. Non-parametric Mann-Kendall test and theTheil-Sen’s Slope Estimator was used for determination of estimating the trend and magnitude of the trend. Findings revealed that the basin is experiencing a warming trend because of the rise in themaximum and minimum air temperature. In case of rainfall, Moradabad showna significant high positive trend during the monsoon season. This would alter the river run-off in long run if the existing trend continues to persist like this.

Keywords: Climate change/Variability, Mann-Kendall test, Theil-Sen’s Slope estimator, Water resource planning

Abstract

Climate change is the biggest problem of today, resulting in thawing glaciers, changes in crop yield, and disturbances of water resources not only in India but in the entire world. Crop yield were predicted according mid century (2050s) by using IPCC Scenario A2 and studied impact of climate change. Out of 80 districts of Uttar Pradesh the three were selected for the case study areas namely Meerut, Kanpur and Hamirpur. FAO based model ET₀ Calculator 3.1 and Aquacrop 3.1 Plus were used to estimate reference evapotranspiration and crop yields respectively by using two major food crops rice and wheat. Crop yield were estimated the present climatic conditions (2005) and mid-century condition (2050s). According to the comparison of simulation results for present and future scenarios, crop yield of rice and wheat was predicted to increase in the mid- century (2050s). However, food security was predicted to become a threat in future, because the increase in population till the 2050s is projected, and yield was increases in the major food crops. In order to sustain the growing population, there would be required in the future, a large area for growing rice and wheat in comparison to the area presently, to meet the same food availability per capita. Hence, there would be a need to increase the production of the food crops in order to meet the growing demands of food in the study areas.

Keywords: Crop yield, Global warming, Future, Production

Abstract

Cultivation of cash crops of good quality potent to give good economic returns depends largely upon adoption of modern practices in agriculture. The region under test consideration is completely irrigated and cultivates mostly the crops of grapes and sugarcane. A field testing that was carried out for the pumps used by local farmers, revealed glaring inefficiency in pump operation. This is attributed to numerous reasons, the standout of them-being improper pump selection and deviation from operating point. Survey of the farming pattern helped to establish nexus between the energy usages per acre for the two crops. Carbon Footprint was determined for the electricity utilized in these farms. Adoption of selection methodologies and efficient practices would lead to considerable saving in electrical power consumption. The impact of adoption of efficient practices was therefore quantified.

Keywords: Agriculture, Carbon Footprint, Pumps

Introduction

Biomass is a major source of energy in developing countries, particularly in India. Biomass as a fuel used in residential sector of India is a major component of total energy use in India. Type of fuels used in residential sector in India varies with locations and availability of the local fuels and also by way of cooking food in the open fires or in the rural cook stoves (Earthen Chulhas). The majority of the household in the rural sector of the developing countries burns the biomass fuel under traditional open stoves or in advanced closed cook stove (Fullerton et al., 2008). Biomass fuel includes any material of plant or animal origin, which is deliberately burnt by the human being. Approximately, 2 billion people in the developing world use the biomass fuel as the major source of domestic energy (Balakrishnan et al., 2002). Out of residential fuels, 80-90% of the energy requirement in rural India are met with the use of biomass in the form of fuel wood, dung cakes, charcoal and agricultural residue (TEDDY, 2007). Burning of biomass from all these sources is well known to be associated with the emission of smoke/plumes consisting of particulate and gaseous species as these are not energy efficient processes and thus the fuels are not burnt completely. The species emitted and their concentrations depend on the nature of the source of biomass and other factors including the physical parameters associated with the consumption of the biomass. The fate of the initial fire emissions depends strongly on both their composition and the regional state of the atmosphere. Once airborne, the particles begin to grow slightly in size as they age through condensation and coagulation. Despite their high concentrations and widespread distribution in the atmosphere, the sources remain poorly characterized. Biomass burning has drawn global concerns in the past decades for its effects on visibility, human health and global climate by emitting particulate matter (PM) and other gaseous pollutants (Andreae et al., 2005). Biomass burning emits significant global source of PM emissions to the troposphere which leads to deleterious impact on the earth’s atmosphere. It has an impact on the chemical composition of the atmosphere, the formation of photo oxidants and thus on air quality on a regional scale and climate change (Andreae et al., 2005). They also have harmful impact on human health, natural environment and ecological system (Cheng et al., 2000). The various impacts of these emissions have been well studied by Cheng et al. (2000) and Bardouki et al. (2003). Interest in this topic grew when several studies suggested that biomass burning emissions could rival fossil fuel emissions (Crutzen and Andreae, 1990). Biomass burning has received considerable interest (Bowman et al., 2009).

Abstract

Continental erosion and fluvial transport play an important role enhancing mobilization of organic carbon from soils and transferring this pool to the ocean through downstream rivers and streams. The Ganges-Brahmaputra river system represents one of the largest transporters of terrestrial carbon to ocean. Intensive agriculture in the Ganges basin coupled with atmospheric deposition (AD) of nitrogen may render the soil more prone to erosion loss of carbon and nutrients. The aims of this study were to quantify atmospheric deposition of nitrogen (AD-N) in the watershed and to assess the influence of land use and AD-N on carbon and nitrogen transport in Ganga River. We collected samples in summer low flow along a 1595 km long transect of the river to assess the status of DOC under variable land use and AD-N input and, at monthly intervals along a 35 km long transect to understand seasonal patterns and the influence of local control. Our study shows average deposition of reactive-N (NO₃^- + NH₄⁺) range from 19.7 kg ha^-1yr-1 in upper stretch to 38.6 kg ha-1yr-1 in the middle stretch. The AD-N in lower stretch was almost similar to the values recorded in the middle stretch of the watershed. The average concentrations of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and dissolved inorganic nitrogen (DIN) in the river range from 0.62 to 5.3 mg L-1 and 52.0 to 385.6 µg L-1 respectively. The land-derived carbon and nitrogen emerging in surface runoff showed positive correlation with AD-N and the river DOC showed synchrony with land use, AD-N and autochthonous carbon pool. Our data indicate that DOC in Ganga River is rising and the land use together with AD-N is an important driver of rising DOC. We suggest that future climate model should consider large scale regional time series data on changing state of atmosphere-land-water coupling and associated shifts in carbon and nutrient transport of major rivers. This has relevance predicting region specific climate change drivers and preparing action plan for integrated river basin management (IRBM).

Summary

Water security can be defined as reliable availability of water in sufficient quantity and quality to sustain human health, livelihoods, food (agriculture, fisheries and aquaculture) and the environment (biodiversity and ecosystems). Discharge of chemical and biological pollutants (from agriculture, industry and domestic uses) into rivers and development of engineering infrastructure such as dams and weirs over rivers have modified river ecosystems threatening the global water security, water quality and water dependent biodiversity. Climate change (increase in the intensity and frequency of floods, droughts, bushfire and sea-level rise, ocean acidification, etc.) is an additional stress on water security. There is a need to reduce climate change impacts on water security which can be done via adaptations to climate change. Adaptation is adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. In other words, the adaptation can be considered as, tackling the effects of climate change. Adaptation to climate change in terms of sustainable use of water may include increasing water availability by developing hydro-basins and transferring water from areas in which it is abundant to areas in which there is scarcity, the reduction of water losses, increasing storage capacity by building reservoirs and dams, rainwater harvesting, improvement of water use efficiency, desalination of seawater, water savings (leakage management, metering, retrofitting existing homes with water efficient products in toilets, showers, baths, using energy efficient dishwashers and washing machines), mandatory rainwater tanks in new and old buildings (for toilet flushing, washing clothes, gardens, car washing), use of recycled or reclaimed water for landscape irrigation or to recharge groundwater aquifers, and to meet commercial and industrial water needs.

Summary

Biodiversity (the variety of living things) is fundamental to ecosystem structures and functions, and provide the broad spectrum of goods and services that humans derive from natural systems such as food (e.g. fish), protection from disasters such as cyclones, storms, floods (e.g. mangroves) or maintenance of water quality. Species (biodiversity) respond to climate change either staying or moving out or dying out. For example, the rise of temperature as a consequence of climate change may cause some species to (a) stay in the same environment since they can tolerate to adapt to changes; or (b) may cause some species to move out in a suitable environment (e.g. some species to move pole ward, some up in elevation) or (c) some species (fish) to go deep to increased depths in the oceans to escape heat or warming or (d) may cause some species to die out or get extinct (species with restricted distribution, longer generation time will not be able to migrate or adapt to climate change). A pattern of range shifts such as pole wards and upwards has been documented in hundreds of species of plants and animals and is one of the strongest signals of biotic changes from global warming. These shifts result from two processes: cold-edge expansion and warm-edge contraction. There is now abundant evidence for local extinctions from contractions at the warm edges of species’ ranges or warm edge contraction because the species may have already reached the limits of their climatic tolerance. Investigations conducted reveals that many terrestrial and aquatic species are shifting their geographic ranges in response to rapid changes in temperature and precipitation regimes. For example, many terrestrial organisms are currently shifting in latitude or elevation in response to changing climate. It has been estimated that plants and animals have recently shifted to higher elevations at a median rate of 11.0 m per decade, and to higher latitudes at a median rate of 16.9 km per decade.

Summary

Climate change (floods, droughts, rise of temperature and sea level) can directly impact the incidence of water related diseases through effects on water temperature and precipitation frequency and intensity. This chapter focuses on some common water quality related diseases that may enhance due to climate change such as arsenicosis, cholera, cyanobacterial toxins, dengue, diarrhoea and malaria. Arsenicosis is the disease caused by arsenic (As) contamination. As poisoning via groundwater has become a worldwide problem with 21 countries experiencing As groundwater contamination including Bangladesh, India, and China. In Bangladesh, out of 64 districts, As levels in 60 districts have exceeded WHO recommended guidelines of 10 µg/L and in 51 districts it exceeded Bangladesh recommended guidelines of above 50 µg/L. Chronic exposure to As has been linked to carcinogenic effects in both humans and animals. These include cancer of the various skins and internal organs (lung, bladder, liver and kidney) and reproductive and developmental effects; cardiovascular disease; reduced intellectual function in children and mortality. Alternate floods and droughts (due to climate change) have been found associated with the release of As and contamination of groundwater in Bangladesh, therefore may increase the risks of the disease due to rise of extreme events such as floods and droughts. Cholera is a diarrhoeal disease caused by the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. In 2012, WHO reported 245, 3931 cases of cholera in 48 countries, with more than 3,034 deaths with a case-fatality rate (CFR) of 1.2%. The highest cases were from Africa, followed by Latin America and Asia. The epidemic of cholera is reported to be linked strongly with climate change. Changes in temperature, salinity, rainfall and abundance of phytoplankton have been shown to cause an impact on distribution and survival of V. cholerae. In Bangladesh, cholera (cholera-toxin producing strain of V. cholerae) outbreaks are related to plankton blooms and rise of sea temperature.

Summary

Climate change can affect the quantitative and qualitative status of water resources by altering hydrological cycles, systems and through changes of water quality via chemical and biological contamination. Changes in these variables lead to impacts on all the socio-economic and environmental goods and services that depend on these variables directly or indirectly including water supply, damage to ecosystems, water dependent food production. The most dominant climate drivers for water quantity or water availability are precipitation, run-off and river flows, floods, droughts, snows, glaciers, sea level rise etc. The observed climate change related impacts on world’s water resources/water quantity include increased precipitation at high latitudes and temperate areas and decreasing trends at low latitudes. The annual run-off in some regions may experience increased run-off, such as in high latitudes and large parts of the USA, whereas there has been a decrease in run-off such as parts of West Africa, southern Europe and southernmost of South America. Floods have been the most reported natural disaster events in Africa, Asia and Europe than all other natural disasters and in case of Bangladesh, six extreme floods have occurred in the last two decades. More intense droughts have been reported from Australia, semi-arid and semi-humid regions, western USA and southern Canada, the Sahel. Precipitation is projected to increase at mid- and high latitudes, in the tropics, whereas precipitation is projected to decrease over many sub-tropical areas (North Africa, northern Sahara), tropical Central American (Caribbean) and the Mediterranean. In areas where evaporation rates are expected to increase it would lead to reduced river and stream run-off. In contrast, areas receiving higher precipitation would likely have higher lake and river levels and may experience floods. The annual stream flow in the Murray-Darling basin (Australia) is projected to fall by 10-25% by 2050 and 16-48% by 2100 which would have severe consequences on irrigated agriculture in the region. Rivers depending on the Himalayan glaciers such as the Indus, Ganges, Brahmaputra, Syr Darya and Amu Darya could face water shortages or river run-off due to retreat of glaciers, and this would cause dramatic impact on drinking water supplies, biodiversity, hydropower, industry, agriculture and ecosystems on which about 2.4 billion people in Asia depends. Globally, ground water is the source of one third of all freshwater withdrawals, supplying an estimated 36%, 42% and 27% of the water used for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes, respectively. The demand for groundwater is likely to increase due to global increase of water use for irrigation and a decline in surface water quality and reduced summer flows in snow-dominated basins. It is projected that climate change (drought, floods) will affect groundwater recharge rates (e.g. floods would increase recharge, drought would decrease recharge).

Summary

The main greenhouse gases (GHGs) that have caused the global climate change or global warming are carbon dioxide (CO₂), methane (CH₄) and nitrous oxide (N₂O). CO₂ is the principal anthropogenic GHG that affects the earth’s radiative balance. It is the reference gas against which other GHGs are measured and therefore has a Global Warming Potential (GWP) of 1. CH₄ and N₂O have a GWP of 21 and 310, respectively. CO₂ is responsible for most of the enhanced greenhouse effect of more than 50%, CH₄ for about 10-15% and N₂O for about 8%. The global atmospheric concentrations of CO₂, CH₄ and N₂O have increased since 1750. While CO₂ increased from a pre-industrial value of 280 ppm to 379 ppm in 2005, CH₄ increased from 715 ppb to 1774 ppb and N₂O increased from 270 ppb to 319 ppb during the same period. Rich countries and large developing countries account for most of global CO₂ emissions (China 23.5%, USA 18.27%, India 5.83%, Russia 5.72%, Japan 4.04% and European Union 13.98%). A new climate agreement called ‘Warsaw International mechanisms (November 2013) on loss and damage’ agreed to help the poor countries to cope with loss and damage from heatwaves, droughts, floods, typhoons, desertification and rising sea levels. The Warsaw agreement also includes a set of decisions to help developing countries to reduce GHG emissions from deforestation and degradation of forests which is backed by pledges of US$280 million financing by the United States, Norway and the United Kingdom. Projections for global average temperature rise is in the range of 1.1-6.4°C; a doubling of CO₂ (from pre-industrial 280 ppm) and average sea level rise is in the range of 0.18-0.59 m (Meehel et al. 2007) and 0.5–2.4 m (Brown et al. 2013). Hot extremes, heat waves and heavy precipitation events will continue to become more frequent. Projected data show that there is an increasing global trend in the rise of average temperature in all countries, regions or sub-zones; a decreasing trend in average precipitation in most sub-tropical areas and an increasing trend of precipitation in most of the tropical and high latitudes.