eChapters

Labile fractions of soil carbon (C) refer to the fraction of soil carbon that are easily altered by microbial activities. These fractions serve as sensitive indicators to changes in management induced soil quality and are grouped under active soil C pool. The method described by Weil et al. (2003)estimates changes in biologically active soil C using a dilute KMnO . This is an improvement over the method used by Blair et al (1995), where a very high concentration (0.333 M) of KMnO₄ was used.

1. Botanical Name : Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb.

2. Family : Elaeocarpaceae

3. Common Name : Warty Marble Tree

4. Name in Indian languages

Kooge pan (Kodwa), Dandale Mara, Kadambola, Kunge Mara (Kannada), Badraksham, Rudraksham, Pahumban, Kara, Ammakorum, Adraksham, Mukkanni, Vellathaanni, Thodayam (Malayalam), Malampinnai, Pathrachi, Ruthraksham (Tamil).

Bacteriochlorophylls: A group of light absorbing photosynthetic green pigments of anoxygenic photosynthetic bacteria.

Ballistic transformation: The use of a particle gun to insert foreign DNA into a host.

Beneficial elements: These are the elements that help to optimize the growth and development only in some species. It is not essential to all the plants. Aluminum is beneficial to some species that are adapted to acidic soils. Cobalt can have a number of beneficial effects, especially in leguminous plants.

Betalains: Highly coloured nitrogen containing glycosylated compound in the category of alkaloids imparting red-purple and yellow colour in plants of centropsermae (e.g., beet root).

Beta-oxidation: Breakdown of fatty acids into Acetyl co-A by successive oxidation. It is the first step of lipids breakdown.

Bidirectional transport: Simultaneous transport of solutes in opposite directions in the same file of sieve elements. Bidirectional transport may occur under some circumstances. For e.g., in a file of cell, as a result of cytoplasmic streaming.

The tumor arising out of ceruminous gland might develop subsequent to chronic otitis externa in dogs. It may be a benign or malignant tumor of ceruminous gland epithelium. It is more common in the external ear canal of dogs.

The grasshoppers are widely distributed throughout the country and may be seen in abundance during monsoon season. For the generalized morphological description, this insect has been considered as the most suitable representative of class insects because its structural details are not much variable. Apart from this, being larger, it can be studied easily. The generalized insect body is divided into 3 distinct body regions: a head, a thorax and an abdomen. Grouping of body segments into distinct regions is known as Tagmosis and the body regions are called Tagmata.

The Head

Measuring cell size, diameter, length, distance between cells, area, etc, are important indicators of the identification of cell types and the physiological or pathological state of cells and tissues. ImageJ is a useful program that allows researchers and scientists to work with microscopy images for cytomorphological detailing.
The steps to measure cell size are:
A. Open Your Image in ImageJ: First, open the image containing the cells you want to measure.
B. Set the Scale (Optional): If your image has a known scale (e.g., if you used a microscope with a calibrated scale bar), you can set it inImageJ. This step ensures accurate measurements.
Go to Analyze > Set Scale. Enter the known distance (in pixels) and the corresponding physical distance (e.g., micrometers). Click OK.
C. Choose the Measurement Tool: ImageJ provides several measurement tools. The most common ones for cell size are: Area Measurement: Use the Polygon Selection Tool to outline the cell, and then go to Analyze > Measure.
D. Length Measurement: Use the Straight-Line Selection Tool to measure the length of cell projections (e.g., neurites or filopodia).
E. Record Measurements: After selecting the appropriate tool, click and drag to measure the cell area or length. Press’ t’ to record the measurement. Repeat for multiple cells if needed.
F. View Results: The measured values will appear in the Results window. You can access the results by going to Analyze > Measure or by opening the Results window directly.

23.1 Introduction
Various products can also be produced by emulsions that contain fat globules. For instance, cream is produced when milk contains concentrated fat. This cream can be further processed to produce butter, ghee, and butteroil. “Milk fat, ghee, butter oil, anhydrous milk fat, and anhydrous butter oil are fatty products that are exclusively derived from milk or products obtained from milk, or both, through processes that result in the almost complete removal of water and milk solids, not fat.” The method of manufacturing (FSSAI standards) has notably influenced the flavour and physical structure of ghee.

23.2 Types of Fat Rich Dairy Products
23.2.1 Cream or Malayi
“Cream is a yellowish component of milk that naturally rises to the surface when milk is allowed to stand. It is rich in fat globules.” Cream is mechanically separated in the dairy industry. The size of the fat globules is diminished as a result of homogenisation of cream, which renders the product less suitable for whipping.
Cream can be defined as
1. That portion of milk, which is rich in milk fat
2. That portion of milk into which has been gathered and which contains large portion of milk fat
3. When milk fat is concentrated into a fraction of the original milk that portion is called cream.

Common name    :    English- Tamarind
        Hindi- Imli 
        Odia- Tentuli

Family    :    Fabaceae

Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a large tree (Fig. 83 a), fairly common, planted or self sown. It is widely distributed throughout India, also cultivated and self-sown.

General Characters
It is a large tree which grows up to 30-50 m height with spreading crown up to 12 m in diameter. The leaves are up to 5 cm long and composed of numerous small leaflets. Leaflets are 10-20 pairs, small and close. The flowers are about 1 cm across, pale yellow with purple or red veins. Fruits are brown, short haired, sausage like, contain an acidic pulp that surrounds the seeds, extremely sour. The plant flowers during April-June and bears fruits during December-March.

The dry matter content of feed samples and other materials is expressed on three aspects as fed, partially dry, and dry.

As fed refers to the feed as it is consumed by the animal, the term as collected is used for materials which are not usually fed to the animal, that is, urine, faeces, etc. If the analysis on a sample is affected by partial drying the analyses are made on the as fed or as collected sample. Similar terms: Air dry, that is hay: as received: fresh; green and wet.

Partially dry, reports to a sample of “as fed” or “as collected” material that has been dried in an oven (usually with forced air) at a temperature usually about 60ºC of freeze-dried and has been equilibrated with the air; the sample after these processes would usually contain more than 88 percent dry matter (12 percent moisture); some materials are prepared in the way so that they may be sampled, chemically analysed and stored. This analysis is referred to as “partial dry matter” percent of “as fed” or “as collected” sample. The partially dry sample must be analysed for dry matter (determined in an oven at 105ºC) to correct subsequent chemical analyses of the samples to a “dry” basis. This analysis is referred to as “dry , percent of partial dry sample similar term - “Air dry” is also used.

Collection and dry preservation of disease samples

Materials : Iron knife, hand lens, vasculum, pruning scissors, paper envelops and plant press with blotters and news papers.

Method

•Collect infected plant parts and place them in paper envelops (use separate envelops for different kinds of diseased specimensxsxs).

•Place envelops in vasculum and bring to the lab.

•Arrange leaves and herbaceous stems inside the folder newspaper sheet.

•Place the newspaper between the blotters in plant press and tighten the bolts.

•After proper drying remove dried specimen from the press and keep them in separate folders.

•Label each folder giving the following informations.

a.Name of the organism

b.Habitat

c.Locality

d.Date of collection

e.Name of collector

f.Collection number

g.Other notes

Object: To determine respiratory quotient of different types of respiratory substrates.

Sauce/Ketchup:-Fully ripe red fruits are selected, all green and blemish part are discarded. It is made from strained tomato juice or pulp and spices, salt, sugar and vinegar with or without onion and garlic and contains not less than 12% tomato solid and 25% total solid.

Ingredient of tomato sauce/ketchup: Tomato pulp 1kg, sugar 75g, salt 10g, onion chopped 50g, ginger chopped 10g, garlic chopped 5g, red chilli powder 5g, cinnamon, cardamom large, aniseed, cumin, black pepper powder 10g each, clove headless 5 number, vinegar 25ml or glacial acetic acid 5ml and sodium benzoate 0.25g/kg final product.

Carbonate is a natural constituent of many soils occurring as sparingly soluble, alkaline earth carbonate, chiefly as calcite and dolomite. Most carbonate minerals found in local soils are calcite and account 90% of total soil carbonates. The determination of total carbonate such as CaCO₃in soil is of great interest on account of high useful ess for diagnosing soil status in terms of structure, texture, biological activity or nutrient content. In calcareous soils carbonates exert a major influence on the chemical properties. Also carbonate content is used as a differentiating criterion for some classes at the family level of soil taxonomy.

Principle

A qualitative rapid test for free calcium carbonate is made by adding 10 mL of diluted HCl(1:3) to about 5 g of air dry soil on a watch glass and observing the intensity of effervescence which results from the evolution of CO Based on the . degree of effervescence the amount of calcium carbonate present in the soil can be broadly categorized into “traces or negligible, low, medium, high and very high”. Soils having traces to low amounts of calcium carbonate do not pose any problem. But those showing medium to very high degree of effervescence, a separate quantitative analysis should be carried out using Puri’s rapid titration method.

Organic carbon present in soil can be very labile, labile or non-labile. This procedure measures the extent of lability of soil organic carbon through relative degree of oxidation by K₂Cr₂O₇.

Common name    :    English- Teak
        Hindi- Sagun
        Odia- Sagwan 

Family    :    Verbenaceae

Habit & Distribution 
The plant is a tree (Fig. 84 a), naturally confined to south-western part of Orissa, also widely planted all over the state. The plant commonly distributed in central India to Orissa, also widely planted.

General Characters
It is a large deciduous and very popular timber tree. Leaves of the tree are large, opposite with 30-60 cm long and 15-30 cm broad. The flowers appear in large numbers in lax clusters at the end of branches with white colour. The fruit is about 15 mm across, spongy and enclosed in persistent calyx. The plant flowers during July-August and bears fruit during December-April. 

In today’s times, a lot of innovation has come into agriculture. This very hard occupation requires an amalgation of farmers with the scientists. From the rural areas after education the technocrats are moving to the cities and this is creating a great loss to the agriculturists. As the population is growing so is the demand for food. Due to shortage in the storage systems the amount of wastage has increased a lot. It is an important aspect to be looked into. A lot of waste material is seen in the vegetable markets, city markets and near the slums. This causes a lot of pollution and spoils the environment. It is important to know why is it increasing and why the facilities for wastes do not exist.

Object: To demonstrate the optimum conditions for seed germination. 

Material required: Beaker, glass slide, bean seeds, thread and water.

Theory: Germination is a process by which the embryo in the seed becomes activated and begins to grow into a new seedling under favorable conditions. Food is stored in the seeds in dry conditions but the developing embryo cannot utilize this dry food. Food can be utilized in liquid form only and seeds can utilize only dissolved oxygen. Excess water stop germination because once all the dissolves oxygen is utilized by the seed, further germination is not possible as the life supporting oxygen is lacking. Suitable temperature is necessary because low temperature retards the embryo activity and high temperature destroys the delicate embryo tissue. Seed usually germinate between 0oC to 50oC temperature and the optimum temperature is lies between 25 to 30oC. During germination rapid cell division takes place. Energy is required for cell division. This energy is obtained from oxidation. The oxygen is required for oxidation is supplied by the air.

Ingredient of tomato chutney: Tomato 1kg, sugar 500g, salt 25g, onion chopped 100g, ginger chopped 10g, garlic chopped 5g, red chilli powder 10g, cinnamon, cardamom large, aniseed, cumin, black pepper powder 10g each, vinegar 100ml and sodium benzoate 0.50g/kg final product.