eChapters

11.1 Introduction

More than 70% of Earth’s surface is covered by the ocean, the world’s largest solar energy collector and storage system. By utilizing only a small portion of this energy, we can meet all the energy needs around the world. As long as the sun shines and there are natural ocean currents, Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC) energy source is free, abundant, and continually replenished. It is estimated that 3 to 5 terawatts (1 terawatt is 1012 watts) of baseload power generation can be practically harvested without affecting ocean temperatures or the environment of the planet. this is about the twice the global demand for electricity. Oceans are therefore an abundant renewable resource, offering a sustainable method for the production of electricity in the future. 

Our country today is considered independent. We have the freedom to live by our choices, and there is no discrimination between women and men. Nowadays, women and men get equal opportunities to earn their livelihoods. Women’s work is restricted to the households and jobs outside the home to contribute to the family’s economy. As industrialization occurs, the demand for labour and employees is also increasing. This has created opportunities for both women and men to work equally.

Plans need not be made for nuts and bolts, but are essential to prevent future bottlenecks. If enough cushions are provided for the future, the economy will grow smoother and faster. The importance of plan is that when you design it before you implement it; you have a better chance of eliminating design flaws from the beginning. If you start out coding and later on figure out you have a design flaw, it is extremely painful to go back and re-implement everything. Certain software engineering experts have estimated that it can cost up to 10x more (time and money) to fix a design problem in the later stages of software development than in the early stages.

The four main projects of the transfer of technology projects of the ICAR.

The projects are:

1. All India Coordinated Project on National Demonstrations
2. Operational Research Project
3. Krishi Vigyan Kendra (Agricultural Science Centre)
4. Lab to Land Programme.

Leader

Leader is aperson who influencing people so that they will strive willingly towards the achievement of group goals.

A leader is one who inspires, motivates and leads people to accomplish organizational goals.

Leaders’ styles encompass how they relate to others within and outside the organization, how they view themselves and their position, and to a large extent whether or not they are successful as leaders.

Introduction

PTD refers to the creative process of joint experimentation and research by farmers and development agents (such as extension workers) in discovering ways of improving farmers’ livelihoods. Experimentation and innovation are natural and necessary to farmers. Before formal research and extension services existed, farmers’ own experimentation allowed adaptation to new situations, to survive and to improve their livelihoods, where conditions were favorable.This is still the case today, even where farmers have access to external support. Many development projects and extension agencies are appreciating farmers’ informal experimentation as a springboard for developing locally appropriate technologies.

Extension Teaching

• Extension teaching defined as a sequence of progressive steps, undertaken to create situations that are conducive to effective learning.
• According to Leagans (1961) extension methods are the devices used to create situation in which communication can takeplace between the instructor and learner.
• The purpose of using an extension teaching method is to create opportunities to establish rapport over a subject matter between the communicator and learners.

Introduction

The term plant growth regulator (PGR) generally refers to organic compounds other than nutrients that influence plant growth and development at low concentrations. According to practical definitions, plant growth regulators are either natural or synthetic compounds applied directly to plants to alter their life processes or their structure in order to improve quality, increase yields, or to facilitate harvesting. The term plant hormone, when correctly used is restricted to naturally occurring plant substances. This fall into five classes: auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, inhibitors and ethylene (gas). Plant growth regulators include synthetic and naturally occurring hormones.

Introduction

The nurseryman needs some records if he is going to plan for remunerative returns and establish himself as a reputable business. Ideally, a nursery planner should be able to estimate how long it takes to lift saplings or how much seed is required, or how many cuttings he can accommodate in a glasshouse, as well as how much scion wood is required for grafting a particular plot. In nurseries, specific registers must be maintained to keep track of day-to-day activities, such as pedigrees and operations. In case of large nurseries, these records are required by law to satisfy inspection authorities, calculate taxes, detect theft, or discourage it.

Amaranth (Amaranthus spp.) is the most popular leafy vegetable grown in India throughout the summer and rainy season, and is known as chaulai in Hindi. Amaranth’s leaves and tender stems are high in protein, minerals including calcium, iron, zinc, copper, manganese, and potassium, as well as vitamins like vitamin A (carotene), vitamin C, folic acid, thiamine, niacin, and riboflavin. The leaves have a crude protein value of 20-32 percent on a dry weight basis and are commonly grown as a leafy vegetable in Southeast Asia. Amaranth plants are usually annuals or perennials with a short life span. The stems are usually reddish in colour and sometimes have spines; they have simple alternately arranged leaves and a pinkish taproot.

Artichoke, also known as globe artichoke or French artichoke, is a huge thistle-like perennial plant in the aster family (Asteraceae) that is farmed for its edible blossom buds. The thick bracts and the heart, which is the receptacle of the juvenile flower head, are edible. The artichoke has a delicate, nutlike flavour, and the smaller heads, or buds, are typically the most tender. Artichoke heads can be eaten hot with a sauce or cold as a salad or appetiser.Botany and taxonomy With arching, highly lobed, silvery, glaucous-green leaves 50-83 cm (19+12-32+12 in) long, this vegetable grows to 1.4-2 m (4 ft 7 in - 6 ft 7 in) tall. The flowers grow in a huge head from an edible bud with numerous triangular scales that is 8-15 cm (3-6 in) in diameter; the individual florets are purple.

Brassica oleracea variety italica is a type of cabbage from the mustard family (Brassicaceae) that is grown for its delicious blossom buds and stalk. Sprouting broccoli, which is native to the eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor, was first planted in ancient Rome and then imported to England and America in the 1700s.

Botany & taxonomy Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) is an edible green plant belonging to the cabbage family (family Brassicaceae, genus Brassica) that is grown for its enormous blooming head, stalk, and small accompanying leaves. Sprouting and heading broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. italica) are two varieties of broccoli. After the terminal heads are removed in sprouting kinds, axillary shoots with smaller flower heads normally grow. Heading type produces cauliflower-like heads that can be a variety of colours. 

Brussels sprouts are thought to have originated in the Belgian city of Brussels, from which they got their name. Records in the Brussels area date back to the 13th century. In the 18th century, the French coined the term. They are not native to the United States and have never been seen growing wild. Brussels sprouts are a type of cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. gemmifera) that belongs to the mustard family Brassicaceae and are commonly produced in Europe and North America for its edible buds known as sprouts. It is cultivated for its tasty buds. The leaf veggies have a diameter of 1.5-4.0 cm (0.6-1.6 in) and resemble small cabbages.

Botany & taxonomy Brussels sprouts are a type of Cole vegetable that belongs to the Brassicaceae family.

Celery was grown as an aromatic and therapeutic herb by Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was first grown in Italy in the 16th century after this wild variety. It was then introduced to the British Islands by the Italians and French at the end of the 17th century. It was first grown in North America in the nineteenth century. Celery’s young leaves and stem are high in minerals, vitamins, and proteins, making it one of the most essential therapeutic plants. Celery oil has a pleasant aroma. This aromatic oil aids in the efficient functioning of the human brain. On an area of roughly 5000 acres, the crop is grown primarily in Punjab (Jallandhar, Gurdaspur, and Amritsar districts), Haryana, and western Uttar Pradesh (Ladhwa and Saharanpur districts). Punjab provides almost 90% of the overall production

The earliest Brassica planted in North America was Chinese cabbage, also known as celery cabbage and napa. It is becoming increasingly popular in western kitchens. When eaten fresh, the huge savoyed leaves with thick succulent midribs have a sweet flavour and crisp texture. The Pekinensis Group and the Chinensis Group are two cultivar groups of leaf vegetables frequently used in Chinese cuisine. These vegetables are turnip cultivars or subspecies that belong to the same genus as cabbage, broccoli, and cauliflower, among other Western mainstays.

Botany & taxonomy: Brassica rapa, one of two commonly cultivated mustard family (Brassicaceae) members that are variants of Chinese cabbage. Pak Choy is a type of Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa var. chinensis). Celery cabbage is another name for Napa cabbage.

Elephant foot yam, also known as suran or jimmikand, is gaining popularity due to its high yield potential and culinary qualities. It is grown in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Gujarat, Kerala, and Maharashtra in India, as well as in the north-eastern states of Odisha, Tamilnadu, Uttar Pradesh, and West Bengal. This crop is being embraced for commercial production in northern and eastern India, thanks to the advent of a high yielding, non-acrid variety. Elephant foot yam has an output potential of 50-60 tonnes per hectare. Elephant foot yam is a tropical tuber crop that has been grown for generations in tropical Asia. It is gathered for its edible corms, tubers, and smooth petioles, which all contain important minerals.

Canavalia ensiformis is a vine that originated in South and Central America and has since spread throughout the tropics and subtropics of the planet. It’s used as a food source, fodder, and a cover crop or green manure. As a minor vegetable crop, jack bean (Canavalia ensiformis), commonly known as horse bean, is extensively dispersed in the tropics and subtropics. Jack bean is a semierect annual herb with a bushy appearance. It is only grown on a small scale in India’s eastern and north-eastern regions. Immature pods and seeds are cooked and eaten like a vegetable. The pods should be cooked in water for 15 minutes before cooking, and then the boiling water should be drained.

Kale is thought to have originated in the eastern Mediterranean and Asia Minor, where it was first cultivated for sustenance around 2000 BCE. In the 14th century BC, curly-leaved cabbage cultivars coexisted with flat-leaved forms in Greece.

Botany & taxonomy: Kale (Brassica oleracea var. acephala) is a loose- leafed food plant that comes from the mustard family’s cabbage (Brassicaceae). Kale is a biennial plant that develops yellow four-petaled blooms in loose clusters in its second year, although being planted as an annual. In the winter, it is robust and flourishes, surviving temperatures as low as -15.0°C. After a strong frost, kale might become sweeter in flavour. Kale is a nutritional powerhouse because to its high levels of vitamins A, K, B6, and C, as well as calcium, potassium, copper, and manganese. Raw kale offers only 33 calories and 7 grammes of carbs per cup. As a result, it’s a diabetic and weight-loss-friendly vegetable.

The leek is a centuries-old crop native to the eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East. The plant is linked to the onion, and its flavour is mild, sweet, and onion-like. Leek stalks are commonly used in European soups and stews, particularly as a side dish with potatoes, and can be cooked whole as a vegetable. It is a non-bulb producing onion family member farmed for blanched stem and leaves. It is eaten fresh or combined into salads, and it is cooked as a flavouring in soups and stews. It is not grown commercially in India, although it is a popular vegetable in a kitchen garden. The climate and soil conditions are the same as for onion.

Botany and taxonomy: The leek is a vegetable that is a cultivar of Allium ampeloprasum, often known as the broadleaf wild leek. 

Lettuce (Lactuca sativa), a member of the sunflower family Asteraceae, is India’s most popular salad vegetable. From a commercial standpoint, it is a tiny crop that is exclusively grown in kitchen gardens. However, because of the rising use of lettuce in continental hotels, the acreage and output of lettuce has expanded, making India the third largest producer. Lactuca indica, also known as Indian lettuce, is a lettuce species native to Asia that is found in Meghalaya and Sikkim and is used for medical purposes. Indian lettuce is a generic term for numerous Asian plants with leaves that vary in form and size. It is also known as the Goose vegetable, Tropical lettuce, Ku mak, Yao mak, Ku Mak Cai, Daun Panjang, and Sawi Rana.

In India, the ivy gourd is also called as small watermelon, little gourd, gentleman’s toes” and “Tindora/Tondli/Kundru.” This vine climbs aggressively and spreads quickly across fences, trees, shrubs, and other supports. Its natural range includes India and stretches from Africa to Asia.

Botany and taxonomy: This is a single-tendered perennial climber with glabrous leaves. The leaves are 6.5-8.5 cm long and 7-8 cm broad, with 5 lobes. It’s a dioecious species. Female and male blooms have three stamens and emerge from the axils on the petiole. Scarlet gourds are a genus of 25 species (Coccinia from the Greek, kokkinia or kokkinias - “red” or “scarlet”). It is found in SubSaharan Africa, as well as South and Southeast Asia (with one species, C. grandis), and has been imported to the New World. This is a single-tendered perennial climber with glabrous leaves. The leaves are 6.5-8.5 cm long and 7-8 cm broad, with 5 lobes. It’s a dioecious species. Female and male blooms have three stamens and emerge from the axils on the petiole.

Cucumis melo var. conomon or Oriental pickled melon is a veining annual vegetable native to China and India. In the summer, it produces yellow blooms, and in the fall, it harvests the fruit. The petals are crumpled because it belongs to the Cucumis genus.

Botany and taxonomy: The fruit’s outer surface is glossy and can be white or green, but it’s known as shiro-uri because when fully ripe, it turns white and is whiter than a cucumber. It’s a melon variety, but it’s used in cooking since it has a lighter sweetness and flavour, as well as a crisp texture when chewed. It contains vitamin C, vitamin B1, and carotene, however the majority of its constituents are water and low in calories.

Parsley is a popular culinary herb that is grown commercially as an annual plant for its attractive and aromatic leaves in many parts of the world. In Europe, parsley is the most generally farmed herb, and in the United States, it is the most commonly utilised herb. Rather than being a part of the diet, it is utilised as a garnish. The leaves’ oil can also be used to make sauces and spices.

Botany and taxonomy: Parsley is a biennial that is cultivated and managed as if it were an annual. It’s the most popular herb for garnishing and flavouring. Parsley comes in two varieties: moss-curled and flat-leaf. Moss-curled produces a rosette of finely cut and tightly curled leaves. It develops as a biennial, with a rosette of tripinnate leaves 10-25 cm (4-10 in) tall, numerous 1-3 cm (0.4-1.2 in) leaflets, and a taproot that serves as a winter food store. It develops a blooming stem with sparser leaves and umbels of yellow to yellowish-green flowers in the second year. 

In the 14th century, the term “parsnip” was borrowed into Middle English as a modification of the Old French word “pasnaie,” which was derived from the Latin noun “pastinaca,” which meant “parsnip” or “carrot.” This history is still reflected in the scientific name for the parsnip, “Pastinaca sativa.” The parsnip is a native of Eurasia; it has been farmed by the Romans and has been used as a vegetable since antiquity, but there is some misunderstanding between parsnips and carrots in historical texts. Prior to the arrival of cane sugar in Europe, it was employed as a sweetener. Parsnips are carrot-shaped root vegetables that are cream-colored and belong to the parsley family. Although they can be eaten fresh, they are more commonly roasted, boiled, fried, or steamed. The thin, tan peel of parsnips is usually peeled before use, revealing white flesh beneath.

The pointed gourd (Trichosanthes dioica Roxb, Cucurbitaceae) is an Indian tropical vegetable crop. It’s called as parwal, palwal, or parmal in different parts of India and Bangladesh, and it’s one of the region’s most significant vegetables. Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Odisha, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and some hilly portions of Telangana, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu are among the states where the crop is commonly farmed. The entire cultivated area is 56 million hectares, while the total production is 798 million hectares (2018-19). Due to its well-established dioecism, perennial nature, and vegetative modes of multiplication, the pointed gourd is physically unique from other cucurbitaceous species.

As early as the 16th century, rhubarb was farmed and marketed for therapeutic purposes. According to History of Fruit, by the 19th century, rhubarb had acquired prominence as a food and vegetable source, with a redder stem and sweeter flavour. Rhubarb is a native of Central Asia, and knowledge of its therapeutic properties dates back five thousand years in China. It was also widely used by Arabs, Greeks, and Romans in antiquity. It came as no surprise to Marco Polo when he discovered it in China in 1271.

Botany and taxonomy: Rhubarb refers to the fleshy, edible stalks (petioles) of Rheum species and hybrids (culinary rhubarb) of the Polygonaceae family, which are cooked and eaten. Rhubarb refers to the entire plant, which is an herbaceous perennial with short, thick rhizomes. The big, triangular leaves are inedible due to high quantities of oxalic acid and throne glycosides. 

Momordica dioica, also known as bristly balsam pear, prickly carolaho, teasle gourd, and kantola, is a flowering plant of the Cucurbitaceae/gourd family that is commonly known as spiny gourd or spine gourd. It is consumed as a vegetable throughout India and parts of South Asia. It is valuable commercially and is exported and utilised locally. The fruits are sometimes served with meat or fish and are prepared with spices or fried. Underground tubers are used to proliferate it. Small leaves, small yellow flowers, and small, dark green, spherical or oval fruits characterise this plant. It is dioecious, which means there are separate male and female organisms.

In India, Indonesia, Malaysia, China, and tropical Africa, it is widely grown. In India, there are four species of bitter gourd that belong to the genus Momordica.

Botany and taxonomy: It is an annual climber vine with woody, thick stems that can grow up to 20 metres long, large, heart-shaped leaves, large, creamy to pale yellow flowers that are single, ovoid, large, dark green fruits that can grow up to 20 cm long and weigh up to 1.5 kilogrammes, periphery with smooth thorns, yellow turned orange when ripe, and black seeds. The leaves, petals, and seeds of this plant are edible and can be eaten as a vegetable.

• Useful plant parts: Fruits, leaves, flowers, tuberous root and seeds.
• Medicinal uses: To treat Ulcers, lumbago, fractures, bronchial asthma and bleeding piles.

These beans are mostly found in China, Korea, Japan, India, Sri Lanka, Madagascar, and Indonesia, and are not frequently cultivated for commercial purposes. Sword bean pods can reach a length of over a foot and a width of one to two inches. It is grown as a minor vegetable for local use throughout South and Southeast Asia, particularly in India, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar. Sword bean is typically planted as an annual vegetable crop because it is a perennial climbing legume. Sword bean is grown for its soft pods, which can be eaten raw or cooked.

Equatorial Asia is home to winged beans (Geneva). On atrip to Thailand, Baker Creek’s founder, Jere Gettle, first observed flying beans. Because the winged bean is a tropical crop from the tropics, it takes a long time to flower, setting pods right before frost in our Missouri environment. The winged bean (Psophocarpus tetragonolobus) is a tropical herbaceous legume plant also known as cigarillas, goa bean, four-angled bean, four-cornered bean, manila bean, princess bean, asparagus bean, and dragon bean. From the Philippines and Indonesia to India, Burma, Thailand, Vietnam, and Sri Lanka, winged bean thrives in hot, humid equatorial climates. It’s well-known, yet it’s only farmed in limited quantities in Southeast Asia and Papua New Guinea.

Experiments at Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI), Kamal, India showed that alkali soils are not always high in available P and rice and wheat significantly responded to addition of P (Pathak et al., 1975).

The availability of phosphorus in soil either native or added is limited by fixation and precipitation mechanisms. The organic acids released during decomposition of organic matter influences the soil pH, form stable complexes with cations responsible for P fixation and thus increases the availability (Tiwari et al., 1980).

The use of bulky organic manures (Maurya and Ghosh, 1972; Chaudhary et al., 1981) and green manures (Prabhakar et al., 1972; Sharma et al., 2000) has been found very beneficial for P management of saline and alkali soils as these improve the soil physical condition and the availability of soil phosphates.

The term soil organic matter (SOM) includes any material that is produced originally by soil organisms (plant or animal) that is returned to the soil and undergoes decomposition process. At any point in time, it consists of an array of materials, ranging from the intact original tissues of plants and animals to the substantially decomposed mixture of materials known as humus (Fig.1.1). Most soil organic matter originates from plant tissues. Plant residues contain 60 - 90 per cent of moisture and the remaining dry matter consists mostly of carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, with smaller amounts of sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and magnesium. Though present in small amounts, these nutrients are of great significance from the standpoint of soil fertility.

Soil organic matter makes up only a few per cent of most soils, but it has a great deal of influence on soil properties and on agricultural productivity.

2.1. Quantity of Organic Matter

Based on the content of organic matter, soils are identified as mineral or organic. Mineral soils dominate most of the world’s cultivated land and may contain anything from a trace to 30 per cent of organic matter. Organic soils are naturally rich in organic matter, chiefly due to climatic reasons. Although they contain more than 30 per cent organic matter, it is precisely for this reason that they are not vital cropping soils.

Carbon is the cornerstone of all life on Earth. Plant tissues and microbial cells contain approximately 40 to 50% of carbon on dry weight basis. Yet, the ultimate source is the CO₂ of the atmosphere. The CO₂ is converted into organic carbon by the action of photoautotrophic organisms (higher plants and green algae). It has been estimated that the vegetation on earth’s surface consume some 1.3 x 10¹⁴ kg of CO₂ per annum which is about V₂₀ of the total CO₂ supply of the atmosphere or ¹/₁₀₀₀ of that in the ocean.

Soil organic matter is among the most complex materials existing in nature. In addition to the organic constituents present in undecayed plant and animal tissues, soil organic matter contains living and dead microbial cells, microbially synthesized compounds and an endless array of derivatives of these materials produced as the result of microbial activity. Soil organic matter probably contains most of the naturally occurring organic compounds. Some components of soil organic matter are no doubt distinctive to the soil environment, particularly those involving inorganic-organic complexes.

6.1. Composition of Soil Organic Matter

The composition of soil organic fraction is as follows:

1. Components of organic residues undergoing decomposition

Practically every aspect of the chemistry of heavy metals in soil is related to the formation of complexes with organic matter. While monovalent cations (Na+, K+, etc.) are held mainly by simple cation exchange through the formation of salts with COOH groups (RCOONa, RCOOK), multivalent cations (Cu²+, Zn²+, Mn²+, etc.) form coordinate linkages with organic molecules.

A schematic diagram showing organic matter reactions involving metal ions in soils is given in Fig. 9.1. The metals present in the solution phase as charged species and as soluble metal-organic complexes (MChe), are shown to be influenced by the activities of higher plants and microbes, both of which serve as sources of water-soluble ligands for complex formation; some metals are held in insoluble organic complexes and are non-leachable and relatively unavailable to plants.

Understanding the mechanisms controlling the adsorption of organic molecules on clay minerals is of significance in many branches of science and industry. The interaction between clay minerals and organic compounds elicits interest that emanates from the prospect that the adsorption of the organic matter fraction in the soil on the mineral particles would render physical stability to soil aggregates.

Organic compounds tend to interact with clay minerals by:

• adsorption process at the external surfaces
• adsorption process at the external and internal surfaces

Extensive studies have shown that much of the humified material in soil is finely bound to colloidal clay. However, it is uncertain to what proportion of the clay surface in any given soil is coated by organic substances as this will depend on the organic matter content and the type and amount of clay.

The ways in which organic substances are retained in soil are as follows:

1. As insoluble polymeric complexes of humic and fulvic acids.
2. As polymeric complexes of humic and fulvic acids bound together by di- and trivalent cations such as Ca²+, Fe³+ and Al³+.

It is well known that organic matter plays a unique role in the binding of pesticides in soil, and that this phenomenon is usually the most important cause for interaction of pesticides in the soil environment. Fulvic or humic acids are most commonly associated with the binding interactions. Binding can take place with either the original pesticide or a transformation product, the reaction being induced by abiotic or biotic agents (microbial or plant enzymes). The reactions or processes involved are apparently the same as those responsible for the formation of humic substances, i.e., for the humification process.

Humic substances are the most widely-present, natural, complexing ligands occurring in nature. They are found not only in soils, but in natural waters, sewage, compost heaps, marine and lake sediments, peat bogs, carbonaceous shales, coals and other miscellaneous deposits.

The fate of natural organic matter, especially humic substances, has over recent decades attracted increasing attention of scientists representing various disciplines. Humic substances constitute about 25% of the total organic carbon on the earth. These are a group of naturally occurring complex molecular structures into which biomolecules derived from plant and animal residues are transformed progressively through biotic and abiotic pathways, by aggregation and accumulation processes

The nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) has led to major advances in the studies on the nature and chemical composition of soil organic matter. The technique has the potential for characterizing organic matter in the intact soil and its size fractions without the need for extraction and fractionation. Furthermore, it can provide information on the compositional changes in crop residues, peat and litter of the forest soils during biodegradation and humification.

Quite a large number of vegetable crops are grown in the country either on a commercial scale or limited to backyards of homesteads. A few crops have similarity while others have dissimilarity in their climatic and soil requirements, parts used, method of cultivation etc. While describing individual vegetables, there is possibility of repetition in many aspects. In order to avoid repetition, it is essential to classify or group them into different classes/groups. Different methods of classification followed in vegetables are described below:

I. Botanical classification

Botanical classification is based on taxonomical relationship among different vegetables. Plant kingdom is divided into four viz. Thallophyta, Bryophyta, Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta. All vegetables belong to Division Angiospermae of Spermatophyta. It is further divided and two classes viz., Monocotylydoneae and Dicotylydoneae.

2.1. Origin and distribution

• Queen of spices, native to East Indies/ India, originating in the forests of the Western Ghats in Southern India.

• Also grows in Sri Lanka, Guatemala, Indo China and Tanzania.

• Cultivated in Kerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.

2.2. Economic importance

• Used for flavouring various preparations of food, confectionery, beverages and liquors.

• Used as whole pod, seeds or ground.

• Used in garam masala

• Spice mixture seasons meat and vegetable dishes, and masala chai and Turkish coffee.

• Antioxidant and diuretic properties

• May lower blood pressure.

• May contain cancer-fighting compounds.

• May protect from chronic diseases due to anti-inflammatory effects.

• May help with digestive problems including ulcers.

.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of South and South East Asia, from there it is spread to Indonesia, China, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Pacific Islands

6.2. Economic importance

• Used as condiments.

• Rhizomes are boiled in water, dried, ground into a deep orange yellow powder and used as a colouring and flavoring agent in many Asian cuisines, especially for curries, as well as for dyeing.

• Has a warm, bitter, black pepper like flavor and earthy, mustard like aroma.

• Yellow color is due to curcumin (3-9%)

• Anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties

• Protect against heart disease

• May prevent cancer

• Ease symptoms of osteoarthritis

• Treat or prevent diabetes

• Treating depression

5.1. Origin and distribution

• Indigenous tree of tropical rainforest of Amazon basin of Brazil and introduced in Asia in 1876

• Malaysia, Indonesia, Thailand and Africa are the main rubber producing countries.

5.2. Economic importance

• Natural rubber is available from Manihot glaziovii (Cera rubber), Ficus elastica (India rubber), Castiolla elastica (Panama rubber), Parthenium argenatum (Guayul), Taraxacum koksaghyz and Hevea brasiliensis (Para rubber).

• Hevea brasiliensis is the most important commercial source of natural rubber.

• After proper chemical treatment, rubber wood provides enough strength and durability of any semi-hard wood available in India

• U sed for the manufacture of useful articles like door and window components, furniture, wall paneling, interior decoration, tool handles etc.

6.1. Origin and distribution

• Native of America and Brazil.

• Introduced in India during later half of the Sixteenth Century.

• In 2017, Vietnam, India, and Ivory Coast were the major producers.

• Cultivated in Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Odisha, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal; also in few pockets of Assam, Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Meghalaya, Nagaland and Tripura.

• Cashew is called gold mine of waste lands.

6.2. Economic importance

8.1. Packaging

• One of the important steps in long and complicated j oumey from grower to consumer.

• Bags, crates, hampers, baskets, cartons, bulk bins, and palletized containers are convenient containers for handling, transporting, and marketing fresh produces.

8.2. Packaging points

• Recyclability / Biodegradability

• Variety

• Sales appeal

• Shelflife

• Containment

• Protection

• Identification

? To provide information on produce name, brand, size, grade, variety, net weight, count, grower, shipper, and country of origin.

? Universal Product Codes (UPC or bar codes) is included as part of labelling.

? UPC is used in food industry which consists of a ten digit machine readable code.

Horticulture is of immense importance for human beings. Among these major ones are nutritional importance, economic importance, medicinal values, environmental balance, aesthetic value and recreation. These are as follows.

1. Nutritional importance: Healthy body maintains a healthy mind. Human body requires vitamins, minerals, proteins, energy, fibers, etc. for its health. Fruits and vegetables are the chief sources of proteins, carbohydrates, fats, vitamins, minerals, organic acids, fibers, etc. Consumption of fruits and vegetables keeps the human body away from several illnessess and hence are recognized as protective foods; necessary for the maintenance of human health. As per the Indian Council of Medical Research; consumption of at least 120 g of fruits and 280-300 g of vegetables per day per capita is essential. Among vegetables, 80-100 g of leafy vegetables, 100-125 g of tubers as energy source and reamaining as other vegetables. However, the consumption of fruits per capita in India is still low. In countries like Italy, France and USA; the daily fruit consumption is 308, 232 and 223 g respectively. 

The system of planting to be adopted is selected after considering the slope of land, planting density, purpose of utilizing the orchard space, convenience, etc. Traditionally, six systems of planting are recommended for fruit trees. However, with the popularity of high density planting, there are some advances inplanting, especially in fruit crops.

1. Square system: This system is considered to be the simplest of all planting systems and adopted widely. In this system, the plot is divided into number of squares as per plant spacing and trees are planted at the four corners of each square, in straight rows running at right angle. Under this system, intercultural operations, spraying, harvesting, etc. can be done conveniently and easily. Cultivation and irrigation can be done in two directions. In this system, plant to plant and row to row distance is the same. e.g. 5x5m, 4x4m, 10x10m, etc.

   While laying out the plot, a base line is first drawn parallel to the road, fence or adjacent orchard at a distance equal to half the spacing to be maintained between the trees. Wooden pegs are fixed on this line at the desired distance. At both the ends of the baseline, right angles are drawn by following the simple carpenter’s 3,4,5 meter system. After the formation of three lines, it is easy to fix all the other pages to mark the tree locations at the required spacing by using ropes connecting the pages of the lines in opposite directions.

   Area occupied per plant = row to row distance X plant to plant distance