eChapters

With increasing fish culture activities several bacterial diseases causing morbidity and mortality in fish have been reported in tropical and subtropical aquaculture systems. Common and major diseases are due to motile aeromonads, Vibrios and Pseudomonas. However, bacterial diseases of minor nature have also been reported from aquacultural systems. In the last two decades several new diseases due to Streptococcus sp, Edwardsiella and Ricketsia have also emerged.

Bacteria can cause disease either as primary pathogens or as secondary opportunistic invaders. Bacterial diseases in fish can be broadly classified as surface ulcerative, acute systemic and chronic granulomatous types (Table 1, Plates 4 and 5). Surface ulcerative types of diseases are characterized by hemorrhagic surface ulcers and are caused by species of Aeromonas, Pseudomonas, Vibrios, Flexibacteria and Myxobacteria. Surface ulcerative disease conditions at times develop to acute systemic disease. Acute systemic disease are characterized by the presence and proliferation of bacteria in internal organs like kidney, heart, spleen, blood and other visceral organs. These diseases produce significant necrotic changes in all affected organs and can cause mortality in a short time scale. Bacterial hemorrhagic septicemia caused by Aeromonas hydrophila is a major problem in carp farms. Chronic granulomatous type of disease conditions are characterized by the formation of granulomas or nodules with the initiating bacteria in the centre. These conditions will not produce mass mortality but can produce chronic low levels of mortality and can significantly reduce growth.

An Overview of Parasitic Diseases in Asian Aquaculture

Parasitic induced diseases bring about significant economic losses in fish culture system. Estimated loss due to mortality and morbidity of fish due to parasitic infection is much more than that from microbial diseases. Protozoan ciliates (Ichthyopthirius, Trichodina) and flagellates (Ichthybodo, cryptobia) are some of the common ectoparasites of fish. Certain ectocommensal ciliates (Epistylis, Vorticella and Zoothamnium) attach to the external surface of fish leading to fouling. These protozoan ectoparasites are often associated with mortalities of younger stages of cultured fish. The situation becomes worst in water with low oxygen and high organic matter. Most extoparasitic protozoans have simple and short life cycle and reproduce by binary fission. Most protozoan ectoparasites are readily detected in direct microscopic examination of skin and gill scrapings. Histopathological changes in the integument following ectoparasitic protozoan infection are outcome of two counteracting cellular processes – hyperplasia of the epithelial cells, including mucus cells and chloride cells, versus a progressive cellular destruction. Cellular necrosis primarily occurs due to the feeding and attachment activity of the parasites. Generally, immersion therapy using suitable chemicals can control ectoparasitic protozoan infections

Disease caused by endoparasitic sporozoans are a serious threat to fish farms. These sporozoan spores present in the pond soil are normally ingested by the fish. The infective element of the spore (sporoplasm) is released in the gut. The sporoplasm reaches the target tissue using the vascular route. Once inside the target tissue, the vegetative trophozoites cause massive destruction of the target tissue and produce large spore containing cysts. There are two types of sporozoan infecting fish and shell fish namely myxosporidian and microsporidian. Myxosporidian occur in fish either as histozoic (intercellular tissue parasites) or as coelozoic (inside the lumen of various ducts and tubules) parasites. Microsporidians are intracellular obligatory parasites and lead to massive hypertrophy of infected cells (xenomas). There is no effective treatment for sporozoans. However, treating pond soil with chemicals and lime is the best option.

Diseases are among the greatest deterrents to the sustained production in aquaculture. White spot disease (WSD) in penaed shrimp and epizootic ulcerative syndrome (EUS) in fresh and brackish water fishes are the well known devastating diseases with serious impact in aquaculture. Aquaculture medicine which broadly encompasses prevention and management of diseases in cultured aquatic organisms becomes a vital requirement for a sustained industry.

The four K’s essential for scientific aquaculture health management are knowledge about the disease process, knowledge about the pathogen, knowledge about the host and the knowledge about the environment. Disease development process is often complicated and involves host-pathogen- environment interactions. Knowledge about the pathogen, attaching and entering the host, deriving nourishment, reproduction, transmission, overcoming host defence barriers, etc are very essential. Susceptibility of a host to a pathogen is important which depends on host species, age, size, immuno competence and stress response. Besides knowledge about how the temporal and spatial aspects of environment stress the host and favour the pathogen to cause disease is vital

Disease Development Process

There exist a delicate balance between the host, pathogen and the environment. When this delicate balance gets upset, disease can result. Aquaculture environments can stress the host, favour the pathogen and result in disease development. To appreciate the process of disease development understanding the pathogenicity mechanisms of the pathogens, disease resistance mechanism of the host and the role of the environment is essential. Furthermore, role of various pathogens, their adaptive modifications, the functional importance of the target tissue, interaction between pathogen and host at the target tissue level, pathogenicity mechanisms of pathogens, etc are necessary to gain insight into process of disease development. Only when a pathogen can establish on or in the host, proliferate, overcome the non-specific and/or specific defense barriers of the host, produce the pathogenic factors, cause cellular and tissue damage, produce significant pathological changes, impair the function of the target tissue cause clinical disease often with mortality. This process is very complicated which often get accelerated by stress and environmental factors. However, the sequence of disease development will to a large extent depend on the nature and load of the pathogen (parasite, bacteria, fungi, virus), its intensity per unit area or unit weight of the host, size of the host and environmental factors.

An Overview of Fish and Shellfish Health Management in Aquaculture in India

Aquaculture in India in particular freshwater fish culture comprised mainly of Indian major carp cultivation has a long history. Since 1980s commercial carp culture expanded, particularly in Andhra Pradesh and in few years became an Asia model. Then on, it is slowly and steadily expanding to different parts of the country particularly Punjab, Haryana, West Bengal, Orissa and Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. Of late, culture of Pungasius (Basa) has come up on large scale in AP. In addition, there is also growing small scale commercial cultivation of catfish, murrels, tilapia and freshwater prawn(Macrobrachium rosenbergii). Aquarium fish breeding is also expanding to establish itself as an industry in India.

Brackish water culture has been practiced traditionally in India in Pokkali fields of Kerala, Bheries of West Bengal and Ghaznis of Karnataka since hundreds of years. From 1990 onwards, commercial shrimp culture came into existence along the coasts of India. High export value, support from government and short culture period encouraged private entrepreneurs to pursue shrimp farming in a big way. There is vast potential for fish culture in brackish water and at the present efforts are on to popularize culture of Asian seabass, mullets, Eutroplus and milk fish. Mariculture is still at infancy but increasing at a slow and steady rate.

Aquaculture health management has to be viewed from the incidences and outbreak of diseases due to growth and expansion of the industry. Aquaculture has expanded tremendously in the last three decades, growing at 6-7 % annually. Contribution of fish production from aquaculture in the country is around 60 % compared to 10 % it was 40 years ago. In few years to come, aquaculture contribution may go up to 80 % of total fish production. Today 2.43 m ha of freshwater and 1.15 m ha of brackish water are under culture. In addition, 8.62 m. ha of irrigated inland area mainly in Haryana, Maharastra and Karnataka which have become saline and unsuitable for agriculture are slowly being reclaimed for aquaculture. Farmers are growing acclamatized saltwater fish and shrimp spp in inland saline waters and a shift like this may favour pathogens with different virulence to cause disease. Overall, it can be seen that in addition to increased conventional areas in fresh and brackish water, aquaculture is being practiced in unconventional areas like saline soils. Performance of fish and shellfish in these non conventional water bodies in the long run needs to be studied from their health point of view.

Introduction

Fisheries and Aquaculture remains to be an important source of food, nutrition, income, and livelihood to millions of people. Fish is an affordable and good source of animal protein, a good option to reduce hunger and malnutrition in the country. India has bountiful resources comprising inland, brackish and marine water along with diverse fish and shellfish species. Indian Fisheries sector evolved gradually over the years and became an important socio economic attribute for the nation. India is the third-largest fish and aquaculture producing country and accounts for about 16% of total inland and 5% of total global marine fish production respectively. In 2021-22, India’s total marine and inland fish production stood at 16.24 million metric tonne (MMT), which includes 12.12 MMT and 4.13 MMT from inland and marine sectors, respectively. The annual growth rate in the marine sector was observed at around 18.7 %, whereas inland sector achieved more than 7.76 % during 2021 22 ( Table 17.1).The fishery potential of the country has been estimated to the tune of 22.31 MMT out of which Marine fisheries potential is 5.31 MMT and Inland fishery potential is 17 MMT. (Table 17.3).

Marine fisheries activities are spread along the country’s long coastline (8118 km) and in the vast Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ 2.02 million km2). The inland resources are in the form of rivers and canals (0.19 million km), f loodplain lakes (1.0 million ha), ponds and tanks (2.43 million ha), reservoirs (3.15 million ha), brackish water (1.18 million ha), saline/alkaline affected areas (0.24 million ha), and such others etc., covering about 9 million ha, providing livelihood to 16 million (Table 17.2). In this direction sea cage culture may play an important role in rapid expansion of seafood production at global level. In present scenario, due to limited availability of fish fingerling we may not expand sea cage culture to the optimum level. Therefore, need of hour is to strengthen the available infrastructure and other needed backward and forward support system enhancing for fish seed production apart from developing market linkages with diversification of species.

Introduction

Aquaculture and Fisheries remain important sources of food, nutrition, income, and livelihoods for hundreds of millions of people around the world including in India. Total fisheries and aquaculture production reached a record of 214 million tonnes in 2020, comprising 178 million tonnes of aquatic animals and 36 million tonnes of algae (FAO 2022). Global aquaculture production continued to grow amid the worldwide spread of the COVID-19 pandemic. Global aquaculture production consisted of; 87.5 million tonnes of aquatic animals predominantly used as food for human consumption; 35.1 million tonnes of seaweeds and other micro-algae for both food and non-food uses. Global consumption of aquatic foods has increased significantly. In 2019, global aquatic food consumption was estimated at 158 million tonnes and consumption increased at an average annual rate of 3.0 percent from 1961, compared with a population growth rate of 1.6 percent. In India, the total fish production during the year 20-21 is estimated at 14.73 Million Metric Tonnes (MMT) with a contribution of 11.25 MMT from the inland sector and 3.48 MMT from the marine sector. The fisheries sector contributes about 1.24% to the gross value added (GVA) and 7.28% to the agricultural GVA. In India, the changing consumer preferences, advancements in technology and income growth are the real drivers that augur well for further expansion and demand of food from aquatic origin. Against this backdrop, this sector is poised for unprecedented growth and opening various avenues of entrepreneurship.

Introduction

The Himalayan and peninsular regions of India comprise of diverse coldwater resources in terms of upland rivers, fast flowing streams, high, mid and low altitude natural lakes and reservoirs (Singh and Akhtar, 2015; Singh and Sarma, 2017; Sarma et al, 2018). The Indus, the Brahmaputra and the Ganga basins in the Indian Himalayan Region (IHR) is a domicile of over 4 % of the country’s population having rich repository of biodiversity, a natural habitat of over 8000 species of flowering plants, 816 tree species, 675 edibles, nearly 1740 species of medicinal plants and about 258 species of fish (Singh and Akhtar, 2015; Pramanik and Bhaduri, 2016; Singh and Sarma, 2017). IHR mainly encompasses the states of Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh where the diverse natural resource-base and wide climatic range, harbour huge inhabitants of endemic, indigenous and exotic coldwater fish species extending an enormous scope of developing upland farming practices (Singh and Sarma, 2017; Singh, 2020), game and ornamental f isheries of large extent (Zaidi et al., 2018). These can provide an excellent opportunities for augmenting livelihood security of upland people residing in the Himalayan terrain, where opportunities to earn revenue is difficult and hard to adopt the farming practices. Today, the Himalayan states offer a unique value proposition in coldwater fisheries to harness its potential. There is an increasing trend of coldwater fish production from the present level of 52,084 MT to 90 thousand MT by FY 2024-25 boosting current productivity from ~1 ton/ha to 3 ton/ha. Coldwater fisheries in the country is now occupying a key place among India’s freshwater fishes, contributing significantly to the nutritional security and job creation in rural hilly areas. More than 1.40 lakh fishermen in India directly depend on coldwater fisheries in hilly areas. In Himalayan region, aquaculture and fisheries represent an essential, often irreplaceable source of high quality animal protein crucial to the balance of diets in marginally food secure communities. The aquatic resources in the IHR are quite valuable for the development of aquaculture and fishery for food, sport, recreation and employment. In this paper, the author has attempted to present possible opportunities in coldwater aquaculture and fisheries which has great promises of future for job creation and nutritional security.

Introduction

Aquaculture has emerged as a viable business model having high growth potential for the entrepreneurs and start-ups in India. The rate of adoption of the aqua-business models for new age entrepreneurs has been very high in recent times. Some of the viable business models that are technology based and scalable have been attractive to the entrepreneurs are in the indoor aquaculture system like RAS, Biofloc systems. It offers many advantages like low space requirements, easy monitoring, higher level of intensification, easy management, short supply chain to the urban markets etc. These indoor aquaculture system are broadly defined as peri-urban aquaculture system offering high growth potential to the entreprenuers in India. The chapter provides a broad outline of the opportunities and recent trends of entrepreneurial developments through peri-urban aquaculture.

Entrepreneurship is the risk taking ability and readiness to venture into a new economic enterprise, along with all its challenges in order to make profit. One of the examples of entrepreneurship is the starting of new businesses in any field with business potential. In other words, entrepreneurship is the creation or extraction of economic value (Diochon et al. 2011; Gaddefors et al. 2017; Alvarez, et al. 2001). It is also viewed as a change, generally entailing risk beyond what is normally encountered in starting a business, which may include other values than simply economic ones. A person gets the benefits as he invests in one or more businesses, bearing most of the risks and availing most of the rewards. According to Shane (2000), entrepreneurship comprises both “enterprising individuals” and “entrepreneurial opportunities”[4]. An entrepreneur is generally seen as an innovator, a source of innovative ideas, services, and business.

Fisheries: A glance

The fisheries sector is a complex enterprise that includes capture and culture based fisheries, including mariculture, coastal aquaculture, freshwater aquaculture, and cold-water fish culture that contribute to the country’s food, health, economy, exports, employment, and tourism. Fisheries and aquaculture continue to provide millions of people with food, nutrition, revenue, and a means of subsistence. Fish is an inexpensive and high-quality source of animal protein, making it an excellent choice for reducing hunger and malnutrition in the country. In 2020, global aquaculture production reached a new high of 122.6 million tonnes, including 87.5 million tonnes of aquatic animals valued at USD 264.8 billion. Inland aquaculture produced 54.4 million tonnes, while marine and coastal aquaculture made 68.1 million tonnes. Over time, the Indian fishing industry evolved and became a significant socioeconomic asset for the country (FAO, SOFIA, 2022) India is the world’s third-largest producer of fish and aquaculture, accounting around 16% of total inland and 5% of total marine fish production. In 2021 22. The overall marine and inland fish production in India was 162. 48 lakh tonnes, with 121.21 lakh tonnes and 41.27 lakh tonnes coming from the inland and marine sectors, respectively. The fishing industry is vital to the national economy and is a major contributor to the country’s foreign exchange gains. India’s fish production has risen from 56.56 lakh tonnes in 2000-01 to 162.48 lakh tonnes in 2021-22.The majority of fish produced is for human consumption, and this proportion is predicted to increase from 89% in the base year (2016-18) to 91% by 2028 (OECD/FAO, 2019). In 2021-22, frozen f ish, cuttlefish, and squid contributed 6%, 3%, and 5% of total marine product export value, respectively.

Introduction

One of the greatest challenges facing the world is how to meet the nutritional needs of a growing human population that is projected to hit 10 billion by 2050. To meet the additional food demands imposed by the nearly 30% population increase, global food production has to increase by as much as 50% (FAO, 2017). This problem is further multiplied due to the imminent threat of an acute shortage of space to grow food, degradation of arable land, limited resources, climate change etc. in traditional ways (Yang and Kim, 2020). Between 1984 and 2016, India faced depletion of arable land at a rate of 0.12 % per year, which means we are left with land to live on, but shortage of food. Hence, to tackle these problems, there is a need to adopt intensive, environmentally friendly, multidimensional and sustainable food production systems like aquaponics (Dijkgraaf et al., 2019).

Aquaponics is a sustainable method of growing fish, and vegetables as well as f lowers (Mohapatra et al., 2020). It is becoming quite popular with individuals as well as commercial farming entrepreneurs, and governments interested in modern farming for year-round food production in different climatic conditions. Moreover, with this type of versatile farming, we can grow considerably more food with less water, land and labour than the traditional farming systems.

Introduction

Trout farming is considered as one of the oldest forms of commercial fish production and dates back to 400 years in Europe and about 150 years in US (Hinshaw, 1990). In India, the upper Himalayan region and Western Ghats are the areas where trout culture and farming are restricted due to suitable climatic conditions. The UT of J&K, especially Kashmir region plays a major role towards trout culture, thus being major contributor of trout as well. In Kashmir, the introduction of trout started in the year 1899 with the arrival of first batch of Brown trout (Salmo trutta fario) ova of 10,000 eyed eggs from England (UK). This introduction of trout eggs to Kashmir was assisted by the Duke of Bedford. Woefully, this batch of 10,000 eggs expired on the way due to the unavailability of air transport. Then, the second batch of trout ova arrived in the year 1900 in a magnificent condition from Howeiton in Scotland, assisted by Mr. J.S. Macdonall consisting of 1800 fry. Out of these 1000 swim-up fry were successfully reared up to the adulthood and the first spawning or eggtaking of Salmo trutta fario, was done in December 1905 at Harwan near Srinagar (Kashmir) by F. J. Mitchell and rest of 800 fry were reared at his personal residence in Bhag - i - Dilawar Khan in the heart of city near Khankah-i-Moula. In 1905-1906, Mitchell succeeded in establishing a regular Trout Hatchery at Harwan Srinagar Kashmir, having a capacity of 100,000 green eggs. Since then brown trout has established itself throughout the Kashmir and parts of Jammu notably in Baderwah and Poonch providing f ly and spoon fishing year after year to thousands of anglers visiting the state.It was from Kashmir that brown trout spread to other sections of the Himalayas. In 1912, Mitchell succeeded in hatching and rearing rainbow trout eggs from a consignment presented to him by the Bristol Water Works England. Today J&K Fisheries Department has achieved remarkable success in trout culture (Hassan and Pandey 2012). In the year 1984, Trout Fish Farming Project was established at Kokernag under cold water fisheries by the assistance of European Economic Community, serving as mother unit for the production of quality seed of Rainbow trout and Brown trout.This project provided a major thrust to the trout fisheries in the UT of J&K from last two decades.Besides this, there is another trout hatchery at Laribal Srinagar where quality trout seed of rainbow trout and brown trout is being produced (Hassan and Pandey 2012).

Introduction

The global aquaculture production in 2020 was recorded at 122.6 million tonnes, aquatic animals contributing 87.5 million tonnes and algae 35.1 million tonnes, with a total value of USD 281.5 billion. About one-third of this production comes from farming of the marine species. Asian countries dominated the world aquaculture by producing 91.6 % of the total (FAO, 2022). With 14.16 million metric tonnes production in 2019-20, India is the world’s second-largest aquaculture producer next to China, accounting for 7.56 % of global production. It contributes about 1.24 % to the country’s GVA and over 7.28 % to the agricultural GVA. During 2019-20, India has exported 12.89 lakh metric tons of fisheries products valued at Rs.46, 662/- crores (USD 6.68 billion). The major farmed species in India are the Pacific white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei and Indian Major Carps (IMC). While issues related to freshwater scarcity and pollution will slow the growth of freshwater aquaculture in coming years, mariculture has been identified as an area of high growth opportunity.

Globally, an estimated two billion people suffer from micronutrient malnutrition and one billion calorie deficient. Thus, providing adequate nutrition to the growing population is a global challenge. Fish currently provides 17% of the world’s animal protein, and exceeds 50% in the diets of many least-developed countries (FAO, 2022). One of the most documented nutritional benefits of seafood is the health benefits of unsaturated fatty acids in marine fish and their contribution to brain development, metabolic function, and the prevention of cardiovascular diseases. Seafood also provides essential micronutrients that promote support growth and development, especially in children and pregnant women (FAO, 2022). The proportion of fish eating people in India has been grown from 27.7% in 1987-88 to 50 % in 2015-16. The annual per capita consumption of fish for the entire population was estimated at 5-6 kg, whereas for fish eating population it was found to be 8-9 kg (Shyam, 2016). Assessment of the present trend shows that to meet the increasing demands from the domestic consumers and to cater to the export market, fish production has to come mostly from marine sector only. It is therefore considered that mariculture is the only option for production enhancement from marine sector.

Introduction

Ornamental fishes have been recognized as the important avenue for the income and employment generation in the country. The economic activities of ornamental fish culture involve a complete chain of the entrepreneurs and enterprises i.e. fish collectors from natural water bodies, local traders, exporters, manufacturers of the aquarium, fish breeders, ornamental fish farmers, vendors etc. With the increase in income and urbanization, the habit of keeping ornamental fishes has been increasing at rapid pace. However, there are no consitenet markets for Indian ornamental fish and a regular fluctuation with respect to destinations is reported since the geographical spread of the markets has exhibited an ever changing hue. The top markets of ornamental f ish from India are Singapore, USA, Hong Kong, Malaysia and Japan, which jointly accounted for about 70% of total India ornamental fish export. Amongst them Singapore alone accounts for almost 43% of total export in ornamental f ishes followed by Japan (14%) and Malaysia (10%). USA and Hong Kong both accounted for 7.5% each. However, contribution of India in world market is negligible. In India, the main objectives of ornamental fisheries are employment generation, women empowerment and earning foreign exchange. Keeping the imense potential of ornamental fish trade in mind the sector is identified as one of the thrust areas for development to augment exports in the country. To prosper any trade there are three pre-requisites called sustainability, quality and quantity.Potential natural resources of indigenous ornamental f ish of high value in the country has greatly contributed in development of ornamental fish industry.It provides enhanced cash income and thus provides better living standards for those involved in the trade. About 400 species of marine ornamental fish and 375 freshwater ornamental varities are available in varoius parts of our country. The domestic trade of ornamental fish is mainly dominated by production and marketing of low value ornamental fish like Gold fish, Koi carp, Sharks, Gourami, Angels, Barbs, Live bearers etc. The retail prices for these fishes vary around INR 15-50 each. The sustainable growth in this segment is possible through captive breeding to ensure a constant supply of hatchery-bred young ones to the global markets round the year. Breeding and culture of ornamental fish can be a promising alternative livelihood for women and unemplyed youth. The key factors for success in commercialization of ornamental fish farming are cluster/group approach in farming with wide species variability, production scale, and quality. The price competitiveness is limiting the middlemen to possible extent in the marketing and overcoming the supply or delivery limitations. Recognizing the potential and possibilities, Government of India has envisaged a program to unlock the country’s ornamental fisheries sector through implementing different activities in this sector. Implementation of Ornamental Fisheries on pilot basis, in its scope and reach, focuses mainly on creating an enabling environment for a sustainable and holistic development and management of ornamental fisheries for the socio-economic benefit & development of ornamental fisheries in India. Thrust areas have been identified for enhancing ornamental fish production through farming and conservation of natural resources through habitat restoration and creating mass awareness amongst the stakeholders.

Introduction

Culture of aquatic organisms is a significant economic endeavor that benefits millions of people worldwide by generating employment opportunities and ensuring food security. One of the lucrative aquaculture ventures in many countries is the cultivation of freshwater pearls. Prior to the development of cultured pearl farming, pearls were harvested from the Gulf of Mannar, the region between India and Sri Lanka, the Bay of Bengal, the Egyptian coast (Red Sea), and the Persian Gulf (Saudi Arabian coast) (Matlins 2001; Strack 2008), which benefited the nation’s economy. However, the natural pearl fisheries have been depleted as a result of indiscriminate fishing, habitat destruction, and pollution. Realizing its economic significance, pearl farming has developed into a successful aquaculture activity to support the nation’s aqua-economy through innovation and standardization of farming techniques.

Pearls are cultured in both marine and freshwater environments, and they are particularly created in bivalves with an inner nacreous layer. Many countries like China, Japan, Australia, Indonesia, French Polynesia, Cook Islands, Philippines, India, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia and Mexico are major pearl producing countries through farming (Gervis and Sims 1992; Southgate 2007; Southgate et al. 2008 & Saurabh et al. 2021). In addition to the economic benefit like other bivalves these pearl producing mussels has positive environmental impact and also has several nutritional benefits. Freshwater bivalves including these pearl mussels are widely used in aquaculture for aquaculture-effluent treatment of aquaculture farms. The shells of bivalves are the source of two highly versatile chemical compounds, calcium carbonate or calcium oxide which is having wide industrial applications. The shells are used in cosmetics and traditional medicine, handicraft and jewelry. These economic and environmental benefits have catalyzed expansion of the bivalve aquaculture industry in various regions of world. During 2009 to 2018 the average freshwater pear cultured production was 1928 tonne while China continued to dominate world freshwater pearl culture (FAO, 2020). However, the freshwater pearl culture production has declined from 3321 tonne in 2009 to 703 tonne in 2018. This drastic decline may be due to overexploitation, habitat degradation, pollution, lack of proper management and many more and it has threatened long term sustainability of fisheries and this farming sector. It gives an alarming call for all fisheries managers and policy makers to formulate management measures to implement for the betterment of the sector. Though this farming technology has a great potential to increase the aqua economy of the country, growth should be sustainable.

Introduction

The development of ornamental fish and aquarium industry in India could be divided into three phases i.e., pre-juvenile, juvenile and post juvenile phase. The period, since independence till the beginning of the 21st century was the pre-juvenile phase of ornamental fish and aquarium industry. It was characterised by few numbers of aquarium shops mainly in metro and major cities of the country, availability of limited varieties of fish and aquarium products, high cost of products, very few number of hobbyists and lack of any institutional support. The ornamental fish and aquarium industry during this period had developed because of the individual efforts of ornamental f ish producers and aquarium traders. The total value of domestic aquarium trade was Rs. 55 crores, the export of ornamental fish from country was Rs. 1.74 crores (US$ 0.40 million) during 1999-2000 and aquarium keeping was known to be the hobby of rich only.

The span of juvenile phase was from the beginning of the 21st century to the year 2019-20. The hobby of aquarium keeping grew significantly during this period as about 1.25% of the urban house-hold were estimated to keep an aquarium at home or workplace. It was because availability of aquarium and aquarium accessories increased in the domestic market due to entry of Chinese products, the cost of fish and aquarium products reduced, the number of aquarium shops increased with existence even up to small cities and most importantly the availability of institutional support. The Marine Products Export Development Authority (MPEDA), Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Government of India, started providing financial assistance from 2006-07 to beneficiaries to set up ornamental fish production units. The schemes of MPEDA initially covered the coastal states of Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal and later inland states of Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan. A total of 579 ornamental fish production units of different grades were established in all these states but the scheme was closed in the year 2014 15. It was followed by another pilot project implemented by National Fisheries Development Board (NFDB), Ministry of Fisheries, Animal husbandry and Dairying, Government of India (GOI) with a proposed investment of Rs. 61.98 crores. It covered six coastal states namely Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and West Bengal, an inland state Bihar and one hilly state of Assam from north-east. The total value of domestic aquarium trade was about Rs. 555 crores during 2019-20 and the export of ornamental fish from country was Rs. 10.84 crores. The aquarium keeping was known to be the hobby of common man now.

Introduction

With the growing population of the country and the increasing requirements for f ish protein, the need for sustainable development of the post-harvest fisheries sector is now felt much more than ever before. Fish and fishery products serve as a part of a balanced diet because fish is known to be an excellent source of proteins, essential fatty acids, vitamin D, vitamin B12, and many useful trace elements such as selenium and iodine. Especially, Omega-3(n-3) fatty acids such as DHA and EPA are plenty in fish, contribute significantly for the functioning of vital organs viz heart, brain, immune and reproductive systems. Over the years the demand for fish is on the rise all over the world due to such health benefits.

The harvest and post-harvest handling, processing and distribution of fish provide livelihood for millions of people as well as provide valuable foreign exchange earnings. India’s scale, its large and growing population and its over 500 million strong labour force pose a daunting challenge to job creation. The rising population in India is also accompanied by the rise of unemployment in all the sectors. Indian economy is also being hampered due to this problem. Meanwhile, it is also not possible for any government to create job for all. Probably, the solution of this burning problem is to encourage and support entrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurship is a dynamic process of creating incremental wealth and impact, and entrepreneurs are people that notice opportunities and take the initiative to mobilize resources to make new goods and services. Over the years, entrepreneurship has played a vital role in shaping the Indian economy, and it is set to play an even more important role in the future. Startups and small businesses are often more nimble and able to adapt to changing market conditions, which allows them to bring new products and services to market more quickly. The government has introduced a number of programs and initiatives aimed at promoting entrepreneurship, such as the Start-Up India program and the Pradhan Mantri Mudra Yojana.

Introduction

Fisheries is a fast-growing and important sector for providing nutritional security and supporting livelihood in many countries. The global fish production currently stands at 179.9mt with a contribution of 112mt from marine and 65.43mt from inland sector (FAO, 2022). India is no exception to this; fisheries provide nutritious food and livelihood to millions. Our country ranks second in the world next to China in total fish production and aquaculture production. It contributes 14.7% to world fish production. Currently, fisheries is one of the fastest growing food production sectors in India with annual growth rate of 10.34% and annual production of 16.25mt. It contributes 1.1% to the national GDP, 6.7% to the agricultural GDP and provide livelihood to about 14 million. The inland fisheries and aquaculture contribute 12.12mt to the total fish production (DAHDF, 2023).

Fish production in India has gradually and definitively shifted from marine to inland fish production due to the rapid growth of the inland fisheries sector. Aquaculture development, including refinement of production protocols, introduction of new species and culture system, concomitant growth in input supply (seed, feed, medicine and chemicals), emphasis on education, training and skill development, intensive network of extension system and policy support has led to a notable increase of inland aquaculture, which currently contributes to more than 70% of inland fish production of the country. In addition, high profits in aquaculture coupled with limited water and land resources have led to system intensification using high rearing density and high protein feeds to boost productivity in closed or semi-closed systems (Zaki et al., 2020). In order to reduce mounting pressure on land resources, vis-a-vis to meet the country’s fish demand, the production must come from comparatively under-exploited fisheries resources through technological interventions. India has abundant and diverse inland aquatic resources with huge fisheries potential (Sharma et al., 2010). Reservoirs are the most important and potential inland water resources (3.5mha) that can play a major role in boosting fish production in the country. However, the recent scrutiny shows the average fish yield from this mega resource is 110kgha-1 (Sarkar et al., 2018).

Introduction

Dried fish is a staple food for various communities and considered a ‘hidden’ sub-sector within small-scale fisheries. Dried fish defined broadly as aquatic animals preserved using simple techniques such as sun-drying, salting, fermentation, and smoking that permit storage as foods at ambient temperature for extended periods without specialized packaging (Belton et al., 2022). The nutritional quality of dried fish remains intact, sometimes retains higher quality standards compared to fresh fish (Faruque et al., 2012). Fish drying is an age old practice followed for preservation of fish. Over the years, it has grown from a subsistence occupation to a full flourishing business (Sanjeev et al., 2020). This traditional method is followed for the preservation of fish especially in rural areas (Chakrabarti and Varma, 1999). Drying method is considered as the least expensive method of fish preservation (Balachandran, 2001). Dried f ish attracts greater demand during fishing ban period or lean seasons, as the fresh fish availability is relatively low (Das et al., 2013). Dry fishes are used as food and the deteriorated Dried fish business can play an important role in the national economy in multiple ways including minimizing post-harvest losses of fish providing a source of animal protein, enlarging livelihoods, utilizing idling labor into the production process and as a dish, especially for rural poor (Wickrama et al., 2021). Dry fish marketing chain begins with a farmer (dry fish producer) and concludes with the final consumer with several intermediaries in between. These marketing middlemen provide services for producing, assembling, loading, packaging and transporting dry fish, resulting in cost increase at every stage of marketing processing (Mallick et al., 2022). Dried f ish are usually low in price, easily divisible and can be stored and transported for accessibility by the poorest and most vulnerable communities throughout the year. Dried fish can therefore play a vital role in nutrition security. In India, dry fishes are widely sold at local markets and commercially important species are also exported to other countries (Immaculate et al., 2013). Dry fish are used for production of poultry/fish feed. Today, dried fish products business provide employment for millions of people, particularly women, who are the majority of the fish- drying workforce in many locations (Belton et al., 2022).

Introduction

The Aquaculture and fisheries sector in India is a multi-disciplinary sector that provides food security, employment, economic gains, and socio-economic upliftment for those involved in fish exploitation, production, and processing. Sustainable fishing practices, improvements in fish breeding and husbandry technologies, along with the introduction of new species, have helped increase production levels through small-scale rural aquaculture, largely through governmental and non-government organizations.1Aquaculture and f isheries entrepreneurship are crucial for youth economic empowerment in India, providing and promoting sustainable development and employment opportunities within the fisheries sector. Technological advancements in aquaculture can enhance productivity, optimize resource utilization, minimize environmental impacts, and improve profitability. Aquaculture and fisheries entrepreneurship can promote environmental sustainability by adopting eco friendly practices and establishing strong market linkages. It has significant potential in rural areas where employment opportunities are limited, reducing migration and contributing to local economic growth. Government initiatives and policies that promote entrepreneurship, youth development, and sustainable fisheries are instrumental in supporting young individuals interested in aquaculture.

Fisheries and aquaculture sector is highly diverse (Figure 1) and an important source of livelihood for about 28 million fishers and fish farmers in the country. India is the 3rd largest fish producing country with about 8% of global fish production. Globally, India stands 2nd in aquaculture production and is one of the top shrimp-producing and seafood-exporting nations. The fisheries sector in India has shown a sustained annual average growth rate of 8.61% for the 8-year period from 2014–15 to 2021–22 (at constant prices). The sector has reached a record fish production of 162.48 lakh tonnes in FY 2021–22 and has immense potential for growth.

Introduction

Where there is water, there is fish. India is country accounts 4.2 percent of global water and has competitive advantage in fisheries production. But, unfortunately the sector has been upholding the tag line of fishy (something unpleasant) in spite of its importance in food, income, society and health1. Even, the livelihood of backward communities near to the seashore and other water basins cannot be ignored and could be strengthened by enriching their life through fisheries sector development who will be a barricade for the intruders in future. Panigrahy & Nayak (2023) highlighted that sustainable Development Goal also emphasized upon the importance of fisheries in various segments like no poverty (SD 1), zero hunger (SD 2), good health and wellbeing (SD 3), gender equity (SD 5), responsible consumption and production (SD 12), and climate action (SD 13). Day by day the country has also improved its export share both in volume and value through fisheries that stimulate employment, investment, consumption, and future income of the people who integrate them with fisheries. However, fisheries in our country have been facing the tragedy of commons, conflicts, and loss of biodiversity due to target fishing in absence of effective market intelligence on which the complete business ecosystem of the stakeholders are revolving round through day and night.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) in its report highlighted that marine f isheries consumption suits the developed country whilst inland fisheries for developing and underdeveloped one according to the consumer surplus and disposal income is concerned (FAO,2014). Even growing consumer surplus also triggers protein consumption over carbohydrate that stimulates more fish consumption in future in our country as well. Study says, fish can be taken with rice as better lysine content of former compensate in diet of the consumer. In this juncture, fish as a functional food has an immense importance across the country where marine fisheries target to Southeast Asia, China, European country, Japan, and US and Inland fisheries find its customers in the national sphere2 (Panigrahy, Vahoniya & Kumar, 2017).

1. Introduction

India completed its 75 years of independence in the year 2022. Government of India celebrated the country’s journey across its 75 years of independence and its magnificent achievements during that period as ‘Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav’. The official journey of Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav commenced as a 75-week long countdown from 12th March 2021 up to the 75th anniversary of India’s independence on 15th August 2022 and continued for a year beyond up to 15th August 2023. The Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav was commemorated as a Jan-Utsav in the spirit of Jan-Bhagidari, which means, a public festival with public participation.

The Hon’ble Government of India has, through this campaign envisioned the foundation of a self-reliant India and he said, “The Azadi Ka Amrit Mahotsav means elixir of energy of independence; elixir of inspirations of the warriors of freedom struggle; elixir of new ideas and pledges; and elixir of Aatmanirbharta. Therefore, this Mahotsav is a festival of awakening of the nation; festival of fulfilling the dream of good governance; and the festival of global peace and development”1.

Azadi ka Amrit Mahotsav paved way to envisage a vision for the country, set goals and realize where the country would be in 2047, when India marks 100 years of its independence. Government of India termed the journey from 75 years to 100 years, the next 25 years, as the “Amrit Kaal,” which means a most auspicious period to start a new venture, signifying that it’s a time to make resolutions and achieve them (Sankalp se Siddhi)2.

Product Development and Marketing

Several efforts are being made on the research front for development of novel products from fish which have enhanced shelf life, retain the freshness and nutrients and are safe to consume. During the course of product development, which are in many stages, studies are conducted prior to commercialisation to ensure the acceptance of a product.

In a business, understanding consumer behaviour plays an important role in success. To be in a business for a long time, it is essential to know what the consumer prefers and why. Consumers make the buying decisions based on a number of factors. The purpose behind studying the buying behaviour and consumer preference is to produce and market products which may better meet the needs of a consumer. The emerging fastfood culture among the young and affordable has brought focus on processed food and its demand in the domestic food market in India. Domestically, spending on food and food products constitutes the largest portion of the Indian consumer’s spending – more than a 31% share of wallet. Evaluation of consumer preferences before introducing a new product will help the marketer to refine the product for better reach.

Conjoint Analysis

Conjoint analysis is a popular technique used in marketing research to study the features a product that should possess to have a wide consumer reach. Conjoint analysis was initially conceptualised by Luce and Tukey (1964) and further developed by Green and Rao (1971) for marketing research. It employs a decompositional method to estimate the structure of consumer preferences and consumer utility values of different attributes of a product or service. It is a decompositional method that disaggregates the structure of consumer preferences into utility values. The relative importance of a product can also be estimated using this method.

Introduction

Precise learning of the components of the general structure of a research article is inevitable in writing a research article. The general structure of a research article consists of Title, Abstract, Keywords, Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion, Conclusion, Acknowledgements, References and Supporting materials. There are no specific guidelines for which one of the above should be written first.

Process of Writing - Building the Article

To start writing a research article, it is not advisable to consider all the tables and data that are available to the writer. The easiest way to start with is to choose the tables and data that can be used wisely in the paper. The writer should be aware of the types of the chart or table which are accepted and the number of charts and tables that should be included in the paper (generally a research paper contain 7 to 9 figures and charts in each category). It is also not recommended to use conventional ways of presenting data and figures (like bar charts, pie diagram). The figures or illustrations should not be so simple. Figures and Tables should be self-communicating. The reader of the paper is very well educated and may have mastery in the particular subject. The language and illustration should be appealing to them. The figures and illustrations should have an impact on the reader to think and draw inference from the data provided by the research. Two dimensional and three dimensional data presentation create more interest in the reader rather than the one dimensional presentations. Next to consider is Methods that explain how the data was collected. In case of writing the methods in research paper, unlike thesis, the methods need not be elaborated in the paper. Results are the description of the data and the broad observation made. Results should not contain the inferences that are already known. Results should be supplementing the tables and charts, not a description of them. Discussion involves the comparison of the obtained result and the previous results. The contribution to the previous research results can be discussed. New findings and solutions can also be discussed. Conclusion is a single paragraph which altogether summarizes the final outcome. Generally the conclusion should not contain citations.

Introduction

Economists consider a producer as an income or profit maximiser. In our context, it may mean enhancement of fisheries contribution to the GDP, increased fish production, Nutritional security of those who need it most, not just those who can afford to pay for it improvement in the livelihood conditions of the stakeholders, augmenting exports to net more foreign exchange, growth with social equity or inclusive growth, etc. Realisation of a goal or target depends on development and enforcement of necessary policy strategies for which a reliable data base is inevitable. Analytical trends of the past data could help to project future trend which could indicate feasibility of the envisioned goal. Here, an outline of some of the Methodological issues in Fisheries data collection is provided.

The Resource Endowments

Fisheries is a sunrise sector in India, in terms of food and nutritional security, employment and income generation. India is the 3rd largest fish producer and the 2nd in aquaculture production, globally. It contributes about 1% of national GDP and 5 % of agriculture GDP. The exports of marine products account for about 5% of total Indian exports in 2018-19. The estimated fish production during 2017-18 was 12-59 million tones (mt). It was 10.14% increase over 11.43 million t in 2016-17. Inland fisheries grew at 14.05% while marine fisheries rose at 1.73% in 2017-18. Fisheries sub-sector provides livelihood support and gainful employment to 14 million people. Many more may be employed now as available data is yet to be updated.

Introduction

Impact Assessment is simply defined as the process of identifying the future consequences of a current or proposed action. The “impact” is the difference between what would happen with the action and what would happen without it (International Association for Impact Assessment). It’s a structured process for considering the implications, for people and their environment, of proposed actions while there is still an opportunity to modify (or even, if appropriate, abandon) the proposals. It is applied at all levels of decision-making, from policies to specific projects.

IA aims to

• provide information for decision-making that analyses the biophysical, social, economic and institutional consequences of proposed actions;

• promote transparency and participation of the public in decision-making;

• identify procedures and methods for the follow-up (monitoring and mitigation of adverse consequences) in policy, planning and project cycles; and contribute to environmentally sound and sustainable development.

Key Facts

• Global fish production peaked at about 171 million tonnes (MT) in 2016, with aquaculture representing 47 perc ent of the total and 53 per cent of non-food uses (Global capture fisheries production was 90.9 MT in 2016)

• World fish production is projected to increase by 15% in the next 10 years, reaching around 200 MT per year

• The total first sale value of fisheries and aquaculture production in 2016 was estimated at USD 362 billion, of which USD 232 billion was from aquaculture production

• Fish (including shellfish) provides essential nutrition for 3 billion people and at least 50% of animal protein and minerals to 400 million people from the poorest countries

• 10-12% people, i.e. over 870 million people, depend on fisheries and aquaculture

• Aquaculture is the world’s fastest growing food production system, growing at 7% annually

• Women account for 19% of all people directly engaged in the fisheries and aquaculture sector, and over 50% when including the post-harvest sector

Climate Change: A global externality

Climate Change (CC) is a result of the externality associated with greenhouse gas emissions. It entails costs that are not paid for by those who create the emissions.

Distinguished Features from Other Externalities

• Climate change is global in its causes and consequences;

• The impacts of climate change are long-term and persistent;

• Uncertainties and risks in the economic impact are pervasive;

• There is a serious risk of major, irreversible change with non- marginal economic effects

Definition of Climate Change

Climate change refers to a statistically significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer).

Parametric and Non-parametric tests

Parametric and Non-parametric tests are used for comparing differences between groups (e.g. Difference in catch-per-unit-effort (CPUE) of two types of Codends) and to test the relationship between two or more variables (e.g. Gender differences in awareness levels of fish farming (High, medium and low). As there seen differences in types of data, Non-parametric statistics are used when

• Data is non-normal

• Small sample size

• The variables are categorical

• Short response categories (<5 ) in scales

Introduction

Resources are used unscientifically commonly. For example applying feed somewhere in the pond results in loss, but by using technology, we can know when to apply where to apply, and how to apply which leads to efficient management of resources. Monitoring should be continuous which is not possible and very difficult for humans, but with technology, it could be monitored and the status could be known even from home which is communicated through mobile, which is sent by sensors installed. The data are also easily maintained. When technology is used, resources are efficiently utilized, since everything has a demand and that can be satisfied. So resources can easily be maintained which reduces wastage. Field management is a very skilled activity and it needs years of experience and onsite exposure which needs skilled labour, in such cases technologies aids with better methodologies. When the resources are applied at the right time, at the right amount, the growth becomes normal which increases the produce quality. After a product is produced, it has to be sent to a series of channels such as transport, market etc. and a technology should backup and monitor everything. The produce after being produced should be sold and many apps can be downloaded to improve the marketing. The whole world is changing within a period of time. So one should stay updated to impress the livelihood and the wide knowledge on technology helps to lead a better life with easy management practices. Thus data driven technology interventions are needed for efficient management of resources, monitoring of things anytime & anywhere, reduction of wastage of resources, reduction of dependence on trained and skilled manpower, enhanced product quality, better integration, better marketability, to stay updated with latest knowledge and access to other knowledge source for better upgrades.

Biometrical Genetics - Historical Background

It is a science built on the principles of Mendelian genetics and the way in which the genetic factors influence the statistical properties of traits in families and populations. The roots of biometrical genetics go back to Gregor Mendel, who first demonstrated the existence of the hereditary factors and to Francis Galton who first applied statistical methods to study biological inheritance. Galton introduced the concepts of regression and correlation for studying the continuous variation in humans, but was not aware of the principles of genetics discovered by Mendel. Galton, Karl Pearson and Walter Weldon together started the journal Biometrika in 1901, with the aim of promoting the statistical studies in biological phenomena. The differences of opinion persisted between the Biometricians and Mendelians in the early 20th Century. In 1918 Ronald A. Fisher published a landmark paper ‘The correlation between relatives on the supposition of Mendelian inheritance, in which he showed the two seemingly contradictory approaches could be reconciled in terms of a simple biometrical genetic model. Ronald A. Fisher’s paper laid the foundation for the discipline of Biometrical Genetics.

Foundation

a) Mendelian Inheritance

Mendel proposed three principles based on his work and now known as Mendel’s laws of inheritance

• Law of uniformity: if two homozygote parents of different alleles cross together, all offspring must have the same genotype

• Law of segregation: an individual receives with the equal probability one of the two genes from the genotype of the mother and similarly from that of the father.

• Law of independent assortment: the segregation of the genes for one trait is independent of the segregation of genes for other traits in the formation of reproductive cells

In association studies, the law of segregation is the basis for the transmission disequilibrium test (TDT). The possible violation of law of independent assortment forms the basis of the gene mapping technique, linkage analysis. These principles are used to check the quality of parent-offspring genetic data. Mendelian principles though developed for dichotomous traits, they can be applied to the inheritance of traits influenced by multiple genes and are fundamental to genetic analysis.

Introduction

The influence of various socio-economic factors on the willingness of the decision makers to adopt new technologies has been investigated by a number of studies (Roe, 1983; Shakya and Flinn, 1985; Thomas et al., 1990). In most studies of adoption behaviour, the dependent variable is constrained to lie between 0 and 1 and the models used are exponential functions (Kebede et al., 1990). However, the decision to adopt a new technology can be very effectively captured using binary choice models. Binary choice models are appropriate when the choice between two alternatives depends on the characteristics of the problem. Application of a linear probability model to this type of problem, however, suffers from a number of deficiencies (Capps and Kramer, 1985), particularly, the one associated with the estimated probabilities in some cases being greater than one or lesser than zero as a result of neglecting significant interaction effects (Mingche, 1977). These deficiencies could be circumvented through the use of a monotonic transformation (probit or logit specification) which guaranties that predictions lie within the unit interval (Capps and Kramer, 1985). Univariate logit and probit models and their modified forms have been used extensively to study the adoption behaviour of farmers and consumers (Schmidt and Strauss, 1975; Garcia et al., 1983; Shakya and Flinn, 1985; Harper et al., 1990). According to Hanushek and Jackson (1977), the choice between logit and probit models is largely a matter of convenience. However, Maddala (1983) and Shakya and Flinn (1985) have recommended probit models for functional forms with limited dependent variables that are continuous between 0 and 1, and logit models for discrete dependent variables.

Model Specification

Univariate logit model is generally used to study the adoption behaviour of farmers and consumers.

The model is estimated using the maximum likelihood method.

Introduction

Indian agriculture, including fisheries, is highly monsoon dependent and effect of climate change is immense on its large tracts of rainfed farms. The effects of climate change could be thwarted through better adaptation techniques using all information available with various agencies concerned with agriculture and using advanced analytical tools. Presently, in the country, there is a gap in the capability in capturing, processing and analyzing huge source of information generated in Indian agriculture. This task can be accomplished using Big Data Platform which works in cluster mode and provides the capability of handling huge volume of data, capturing streaming data or real time data and also can accommodate unstructured data. As per FAO, 70 percent in increase in food production in another 30 years is required to overcome the increasing global food demand. It may not be possible to achieve that target due to variety of problems such as reduction in land for cultivation, climate change, and various other factors, such as increasing the fish production etc. Improvement in crop genetics, application of fertilizer in higher dosages, irrigation facilities, etc. may not be possible in future. We need to create a big data platform involving important parameters on crop production viz., soil, soil temperature, water requirements, and relative humidity, pests and diseases, and micro and macro nutrients in temporal and spatial. Now, since available data is properly utilized for making valid analytics by the farming community due to certain issues. Even the data created is incompatible, data available from various sources is also not compatible among themselves due to which decision making is also a big challenge. Due to the incompatibility of agricultural data from different sources, farmers do not have the accessibility to vast pool of available information for making effective, efficient and timely decisions.

Big Data in Agriculture (including fisheries)

Big data, an emerging data driven system helps in precision agriculture based on data collected. This helps farmers in making efficient decisions on sowing, planting, fertilizing and various other farm operations including

harvesting crops at the appropriate time. Of late, sensors are placed in the fields to collect data on related parameters viz., soil temperature and moisture relative humidity, wind speed, weather, etc. which help in crop growth. Images obtained using satellites are helpful in monitoring the crop growth during crop period. Agro-produce includes not only yields obtained from crops but also include produce from horticulture, livestock, fisheries, and other systems also. Agriculture is dependent on various parameters such as climate, seed, soil cultivation practices, agronomic practices, irrigation requirement, fertilizers pesticides, weeds, harvesting, post harvesting techniques, etc. Data collected on all these parameters would help in estimation of yield and other relevant parameters. Governments, Universities, Research departments, Agro-business and Agri-input companies generate, maintain and use voluminous data related to various farm management practices and other related issues say insurance marketing, supply chain, packaging, distribution, etc. This voluminous and wide variety of data poses several challenges for making effective decisions. Information on various fish related parameters can be collected from the stakeholders and a big data platform can be developed for effective decision making.

Introduction

A fundamental issue when analysing trade policy reform in global seafood market is the extent to which domestic agricultural commodity markets in developing countries respond to changes in international prices. Price trans mission from the world to domestic markets is central in understanding the extent of the integration of economic agents into the market process.

Studies on the transmission of price signals are founded on concepts related to competitive pricing behavior. In spatial terms, the classical paradigm of the Law of One Price, as well as the predictions on market integration provided by the standard spatial price determination models (Enke, 1951; Samuelson, 1952; Takayama and Judge, 1972) postulate that price transmission is complete with equilibrium prices of a commodity sold on competitive foreign and domestic markets differing only by transfer costs, when converted to a common currency. These models predict that changes in supply and demand conditions in one market will affect trade and therefore prices in other markets as equilibrium is restored through spatial arbitrage.

The absence of market integration, or of complete pass-through of price changes from one market to another has important implications for economic welfare. Incomplete price transmission arising either due to trade and other policies, or due to transaction costs such as poor transport and communication infrastructure, results in a reduction in the price information available to economic agents and consequently may lead to decisions that contribute to inefficient outcomes. Fisheries and seafood food trade policy reform, especially, is a priority issue in the next WTO negotiations, as trade liberalization is viewed as encouraging allocative efficiency and long run growth.

Introduction

Regression analysis is one of the most widely used techniques for studying relationships involving multiple variables for analysing data by expressing a relationship between a variable of interest (the response) and a set of related predictor variables. The regression models include linear and non linear approaches assuming appropriate functional forms. A good account on regression analysis and related topics can be found in Draper and Smith (1998), Montgomery et al. (2001), Chatterjee and Hadi (2006) etc. In this write-up, regression model fitting, some of the detection techniques which are useful in detecting the problem of multicollinearity between the so-called ‘independent variables’ and also outlier detection in data are discussed. Linear regression with qualitative regressor variables is also discussed. Moreover, variable selection procedures, goodness of fit measures for model adequacy and validation are also discussed. In addition, non-linear regressions viz., logistic (both binary and multinomial) when the response variable is qualitative are also covered.

Multiple Linear Regression Modeling

Let the response variable (variable to be forecasted) be denoted by Y and the set of predictor variables, by X1 , X2 , …, Xp , where p denotes the number of predictor variables. The true relationship between Y and (X1 , X2 ,…,Xp ) can be approximated by a multiple linear regression model given by

Setting

The basic difference which dovetails most of the animal breeding experiments is the unbalancedness of the data collated with respect to factorial classes thereby making non-orthogonal nature of the effects involved ubiquitous. Henderson, C.R. (1953), through a series of seminal works dealt with these types of data and came out with three distinct methods to estimate the variance components emanating out of such non-orthogonal animal experiment data. Before discussing those methods, let us delve a bit on the challenges in estimating the variance components in animal breeding data. There are two major reasons, first, several methods of estimation are available (most of which are reduced to the analysis of variance method for balanced data), but not one of them has yet been clearly established as superior to the others. Second, all the methods involve relatively cumbersome algebra; discussion of unbalanced data can therefore easily deteriorate into a welter of symbols, a situation which functions as the anti-appetizer to applied researchers.

A safe starting point towards understanding the nuances of dealing with unbalanced data could be the paper by Henderson (1953) which is quite seminal in nature. The methods described have been often referred to as the gold standard in the area of estimating variance components from unbalanced data for many years to come. Of the three, method 1 is simply an analogue of the analysis of variance method used with balanced data and method 2 is used to correct a deficiency of method 1 that arises out of mixed models and the last one is quite different and involves the method of fitting constants so often used in fixed effects models. Let us see these methods in a bit more detail in the ensuing passages.

Introduction

The term ‘Fish Marketing’ is composed of two broad meaning term ‘Fish’ and ‘Marketing’. Before discussing the methodological issues of fish marketing data analysis, we must understand the broader meaning of it as both words are being used frequently with a précised meaning. Google dictionary explains fish as ‘A limbless cold-blooded vertebrate animal with gills and fins living wholly in water’. But ‘fish’ as a component of fish marketing or social science study, means a product and a variety of product, which has different time, space and form utilities for consumers.

The word ‘marketing’ is not merely buying and selling of fish, rather it connotes a series of activities involved in moving goods or services from point of production to the point of consumption. So ‘fish marketing’ is defined as physical and institutional set up to perform all activities involved in the flow of fish, fish products and services from the point of initial fish production until they are in the hands of ultimate customers.

It includes assembling, handling, storage, transport, processing, wholesaling, retailing and export of fish and fishery products as well as accompanying supporting services such as market information, establishment of grades and standards, community trade, financing and price risk management and the institutions involved in performing the above functions.

It is desired to have an efficient and well planned distribution networkso that fish and fishery products move from the place of landing or production to the place of consumption at cheapest cost with quality –intact, ensuring the maximum price realization to the farmers or fish producers. It is really challenging to the public agencies involved to meet the requirements of all three major players, viz., fishermen or fish farmers, consumers and traders.

It includes all activities involved in creation of time, place, form and possession utility. Philip Kotler explained marketing as the science and art of exploring, creating, and delivering value to satisfy the needs of a target market at a profit. ‘Fish marketing’ is different from marketing of other goods and services and even differs a bit from marketing of variousagricultural goods and services.

Introduction

Resources must be managed effectively to achieve maximum sustainable agricultural production from limited natural resources. Many of the resources that agriculture depends on (such as water and land) are finite and need to be well managed for long term sustainability. In most cases, this means avoiding adverse effects on the society and environment. With the development of agricultural sectors, the utilization patterns of natural resources in agriculture are important concern for policy makers in present climate change scenario. Unlike other production activities, agricultural activities also utilize factor resources to produce several marketable products or services. The way the natural resources are utilized in agriculture and its concern for society and environment, plays a vital role in economic viability and ecological sustainability of agriculture.

There are several conventional methodologies to estimate the level of profit and efficiency of production system at enterprise level. Only marketable factors are considered in conventional methods keeping the non-marketable component of production system away. Non-marketable component of a production system includes various social and environmental dimensions of it. Nammalwar (1997) has explained the concept of environmentally sound and sustainable enterprises, which include the physical resources, ecological resources, human use value, quality of life values with either way impact of agriculture and environment. In recent years, non-marketable dimensions of agricultural activities have been given importance because of its concern for the environment and society. This chapter provides a methodology that incorporates non-marketable component of agricultural enterprise besides its marketable component. The Resource Cost Ratio (RCR) approach is a modified methodology developed by Debnath et al. (2010) from Domestic Resource Cost Ratio (DRCR) that Morris (1990) has applied at macro-economic level to determine the comparative advantage between countries.

Introduction

This chapter is intended to throw light on some statistical and econometric methods used for analysing time series data with specific emphasis on basic concepts related to time series analysis, co-integration techniques as well as forecasting techniques such as ARIMA model. Time series analysis is often helpful in revealing the broad patterns associated with longitudinal data, which in turn would aid in important economic and policy decisions. In fisheries sector too, economic variables such as market demand and supply, prices, etc. are of prime importance and often come in longitudinal format. There are a number of alternative methodologies available in the time series literature to determine relevant parameters pertaining to longitudinal data and the ensuing sections are set apart to delve deeper into this realm.

Some Key Concepts

Stationary Stochastic Process

A random or stochastic process is a collection of random variables ordered in time. A stochastic process is said to be stationary if its mean and variance are constant over time and the value of covariance between two time periods depend only on the distance or the gap between the two time periods and not the actual time at which the covariance is computed. In the time series literature, such a stochastic process is known as a weekly stationary or second order stationarity or covariance stationarity.

There has been a surge of data in every field of research due to advancements in information technology. Data collection and storage has become much easier and cheaper in recent years. This voluminous data needs to be systematically stored for quick retrieval, process and to find useful patterns. Data mining techniques help in deriving useful patterns from data. These techniques which are also called as machine learning techniques majorly categorized as classification, clustering and association rule mining methods. Classification is a supervised learning method which needs labeled dataset for model building and prediction purposes. Clustering and association rule mining methods do not require labeled dataset and hence they are referred as unsupervised learning methods.

Clustering aims at grouping the objects based on a set of measured variables where similar objects are assigned to one group. For example, let us say, if we have collected information on 50 fish pond parameters (50 variables) and we wish to find the groups in terms of pond management (like well managed to poorly managed), with cluster analysis, we can group the ponds based on pond variables. In the process of clustering, each pond is assigned to one of the groups made. The question is how many natural clusters present in the data as in many cases we would not be getting perfect clusters of disjoint sets. We can achieve better accuracies in cluster formation only by trial and error. Good clustering criteria are to see that there is minimum with-in cluster variations and maximum between cluster variations.

Cluster analysis has several applications in fisheries research. It could be used to group fish stocks from different regions, categorise ponds based on their technical efficiencies, identify the farm clusters with high disease risk, group farmers based on their preferences, agro zoning based on climatic variables and culture practices. Cluster analysis is also applied in fish bioinformatics to group the similar sequences.

Introduction

Importance of basic statistics in everyday life cannot be stressed enough. Inclusion of basic statistics in high school curriculum is uncommon but proves highly beneficial to supplement certain careers in future. This field may be the most widely used of all and most people don’t even know they are using it. Many of today’s brightest business minds use this study to create charts and graph that allow them to stress a certain aspect of the business they are dealing with. Market research agencies, News rooms, marketing divisions of large corporations, NGOs, accounting firms etc. are full of people who specialize in basic statistics.

Statistics is concerned with the describing, interpreting and analyzing data. It is, therefore, an essential element in any improvement process. Statistics is often categorized into descriptive and inferential statistics. It uses analytical methods which provide the math to model and predict variation. It uses graphical methods to help making numbers visible for communication purposes.

Descriptive Statistics

• Descriptive statistics summarizes or describes characteristics of a data set.

• They help to make sense of large numbers of individual responses, to communicate the essence of those responses to others

• Helps exploring and making conclusions about the data in order to make rational decisions.

• Includes calculating things such as the average of the data, its spread and the shape it produces.

• Are displayed as tables, charts, percentages, frequency, distributions and reported as measures of central tendency

• Determine if the sample is normally distributed (bell curve) as most statistical tests require the sample to have normal distribution

• Determine if the sample can be compared to the larger population

Difference between Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

Nowadays, statistics is playing a major role in the field of research; that helps in the collection, analysis and presentation of data in a measurable form. It is quite hard to identify, whether the research relies on descriptive statistics or inferential statistics, as people usually, lacks knowledge about these two branches of statistics. As the name suggests, descriptive statistics is one which describes the population. On the other end, Inferential statistics is used to make the generalisation about the population based on the samples.

Experimental Designs

Experimental Designs are used widely to compare more than 2 groups, commonly called as treatments. It is very common in agriculture to conduct several experiments, mostly in fields to test various varieties, different levels of inputs, etc. When one is interested in crop modelling, it is necessary to identify the values of several constants, such as input efficiency, growth periods, growth rates, etc. Instead of guessing these values, it would be more appropriate to conduct experiments to derive these values empirically, which can improve the modelling efforts. The principles of experimentation were given by Sir R.A. Fisher during 1920’s, which are still relevant and found in every scientific research namely, (i) Randomization, (ii) Replication and (iii) Local Control. The following sections introduce some of the commonly used terms in Experimental Designs:

Factor: Variables which are set/considered by the experimenters in any experiment. Examples of factors are: Nitrogen, Varieties etc. Level: The various values of a particular factor considered in the experiment. Examples of levels are: Rates of nitrogen applied, different varieties considered in the experiments.

Treatment: The levels of one or more variables (Factors) set/considered by the experimenters.

Note that in many experiments, the number of variables (i.e. factors) considered may be one only.

Need of Analytics in Fisheries Management

New technologies are introduced for industrial vessels every day: Fuel and gear sensors, cameras, electronic catch reports etc. There is a global push to track small-scale fishing vessel. In the coming years, fisheries monitoring centers will have to adjust from tracking a few hundred vessels to tens of thousands of vessels, meaning huge quantity of data. To make sense of all this information, it must be properly analysed. The future of fisheries depends on big-data analytics

This may help in many ways. Fishing trips could be tailored to meet quotas in the shortest time reducing fuel consumption and crew costs. Real-time catch data could help administrations close a fishing zone once quota is reached. Fisheries administrations can monitor catch efforts over an entire region and decide which zones to close, improving management of stocks and fishing licenses. Fighting the challenge of Illegal and Unreported fishing contributing to over-exploitation of fish stocks. Use of disruptive technologies in fisheries and aquaculture like block chains, sensors and automatic identification systems (AIS) has the potential to change the processes profitability and sustainability of the sector

Globally used popular Data Science Software

• MS-EXCEL

• SPSS (IBM)

• STATA • MINITAB

• SAS

• R

• PYTHON

Introduction

Indian fisheries and aquaculture is an important sector of food production providing nutritional security, besides livelihood support and gainful employment to more than 14 million people, and contributing to agricultural exports. With diverse resources ranging from deep seas to lakes in the mountains and more than 10% of the global biodiversity in terms of fish and shellfish species, the country has shown continuous and sustained increments in fish production since independence. The sector constitutes about 6.3 percent of the global fish production and contributes to 0.91 percent of the GDP and 5.23 percent of the agricultural GDP. The total fish production of 13.34 million metric tonnes presently has nearly 74 percent contribution from the inland sector and rest by the marine sector. Paradigm shifts in terms of increasing contributions from inland sector and further from aquaculture have been significant over the years. With high growth rates, the different facets, viz., marine fisheries, coastal aquaculture, inland fisheries, freshwater aquaculture, and coldwater fisheries are contributing to the food basket, health, economy, exports, employment and tourism of the country. More than 50 different types of fish and shellfish products are being exported to 75 countries around the world. Fish and fishery products have presently emerged as the largest group in agricultural exports from India, with 13.77 lakh tonnes in terms of quantity and ` 45,106.89 crore in value. This accounts for around 10% of the total exports and nearly 20% of the agricultural exports, and contribute to about 0.91% of the GDP and 5.23% to the Agricultural GDP of the country.

The Pradhan Mantri Matsya Sampada Yojana (PMMSY) is an initiative launched by the Government of India to establish a comprehensive framework and reduce infrastructural gaps in the fisheries sector. The scheme was announced by the Finance Minister, Smt. Nirmala Sitharaman during her speech in the Parliament of India while presenting the Union budget for 2019–20 on 5 July 2019. The government intends to place India in the first place in Fish production and processing by implementing Blue Revolution. This scheme is in line with government’s aim to double the farmers’ income by 2022–23.The policy envisages integrating all the fishermen with agricultural farmers and providing all the facilities available through various farmer welfare schemes to the fishermen. A new dedicated Department of Fisheries was constituted in a newly carved out Ministry of Fisheries, Animal Husbandry and Dairying to implement this and other policy initiatives of the government.

Introduction

The term analytics and data analytics are used inter-changeably. When referring to analytics, it means “analysis of data” or “what can be learnt from an analysis of data”. In an industry like fishing industry, the researchers have been slow to adopt the tools used to portray accurate representations of data. For example, a dashboard with historical data from the past ten or fifteen years displayed on a digital map can enable the researchers to decide the places where fishing can be good. This map can help in locating the points fished during specific seasons. This will enable the researchers to filter the data on various parameters like area, year, season etc. or on any other specific parameter which can give valuable information. Similarly, this type of dashboard can affect the decision making process while fishing, like one can find the monetary value associated with each trip during a specific season or compare the values associated with two different trips to gauge the cost-benefits.

Data Analytics helps in taking most informed decisions in the fishing industry if one of the goals is to increase income while ensuring sustainability. It helps in deciding whether to reduce overhead costs or to increase expenditure to avoid overhead costs in future.

Fisheries sector undergoes continuous changes with introduction of newer technologies evolved through research and development institutions. Statistics per se deals with generation of data, data management, data analysis and information generation from data. There are varied disciplines of fisheries viz., Aquaculture, Fisheries Resource Management, Fish Genetics, Fish Biotechnology, Aquatic Health, Nutrition, Environment, Fish Physiology, and Post-harvest Technology, wherein research on practical aspects is undertaken which affect production and sustainability.

Introduction

Export of quality seafood products is important to have a success in international marketing. Exporters must be quality conscious and the Governments must insist on quality control and inspection. The seafood export industry in India is over 50 years old. Seafood contributes 10% of the total exports and nearly 20% of all agricultural exports. In the year 2022-23, India exported 17,35,286 MT seafood to more than 100 countries worth US $8.09 billion equivalent to Rs. 63,969.14 crore. There are over 150 fish processing facilities approved by the European Union out of the existing 350 processing facilities. The Export Inspection Council and the Marine Products Export Development Authority are working very closely with the fish processing industries for the growth of seafood exports.

The Government of India enacted the Export (Quality Control and Inspection) Act, 1963 for the development of export trade through quality control and inspection. It empowers the Government to notify the products intended for compulsory quality control and inspection prior to their export. It specifies the type of quality control required for the notified products. It recognizes standard specifications for a notified product. It prohibits the export of notified products that are not complying with export conditions. It creates a machinery for quality control and take measures to protect markets for Indian commodities. As the first step, Export Inspection Council (the Council) was established on 1st January 1964 for implementation of various provisions of the Export (Quality Control & Inspection) Act, 1963.

Introduction

Wastes produced during fish processing operations can be solid or liquid. Solid wastes consist of skin, viscera, fish heads, fish bones, and scraps of f lesh. Liquid wastes are the blood water and brine from drained storage tanks, water discharges from washing and cleaning, blood and soluble substances from entrails, and detergents and other cleaning agents. The effluent from the processing of fatty fish contains very high levels of oil. Overall, the wastewater from fish processing operation contains an undefined mixture of substances, mostly organic in nature.

13.1. Physicochemical Parameters of the Wastewater

13.1.1. pH

The pH is an important parameter that reveals contamination level before biological treatment. The effluents from fish processing plants are usually close to 7 or alkaline, due to decomposition of the proteinaceous matter and emission of ammonia compounds.

13.1.2. Solids Content

Solids may be present either in dissolved or suspended form. Suspended solids are objectionable as they settle in the wastewater ducts reducing their capacity or settle in the waterbody affecting bottom - dwelling flora or sometimes float reducing the light entering from the surface or remain suspended reducing the amount of light that enters the water. The settling solids are measured using an Imhoff cone. If the wastewaters contain solids that settle after 10 min, their discharge is usually not permitted. The suspended solids are measured by passing a sample through a fiberglass filter; and determining the quantity by gravimetry, after evaporation of a known volume of the filtrate.

Introduction

Seafood provides about 25% of the global intake of animal protein and fetches a huge economy for developing nations. Many challenges concerning food safety and quality exist due to globalization and liberalization of the global f ish trade. International food safety regulatory bodies such as WTO and CAC through SPS and TBT Agreements work on ensuring food safety and quality. Adoption of risk-based analysis and implementation of the HACCP system are encouraged to maintain high seafood safety standards. International regulatory bodies set maximum residual limits for various environmental pollutants and contaminants to ensure consumer safety. Consumer education programs play important role to enhance awareness and improve transparency in the seafood supply chain. Internationally traded seafood products therefore need to meet the standards prescribed for food safety and quality requirements. In case of non-conformance, they could be detained, rejected and destroyed.

The global demand on seafood quality and safety requirement and the complexities of seafood supply chain make difficulty to ensure authenticity and traceability of seaood products in the market. Most seafood is exported from the country where it is caught while part of it via. a third country. Seafood pass-through complex supply chains involving, capture/culture, transshipment, processing, packaging, wholesale, retailing, and consumer. The global trade of seafood has led to a significant concern associated with seafood fraud.

12.1. Seafood Fraud

Seafood fraud is the practice of providing misleading information to the consumers about their product for financial gain. There are nine types of seafood fraud, which include species substitution, fishery substitution, IUU substitution, species adulteration, chain of custody abuse, catch method fraud, undeclared product extension, modern day slavery, and animal welfare

Introduction

Nutrition is the study of how food and nutrients affect the body’s health and well-being. It encompasses all aspects of food, from the food production, processing, consumption and digestion by the body. A balanced diet included all the essential nutrients such as carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins and minerals for maintaining good health. The recommended daily intake of nutrients varies depending on the age, gender and physical activity of a person. The nutritional need also varies depending on the lifestyle and medical condition of a person. The nutrition facts are based on recommended daily intakes for various nutrients, which vary based on factors such as age, sex, and physical activity. These facts are given on food packaging or label, providing important information on the serving size, calories, macronutrients and micronutrients, and other ingredients.

Nutrition labels are mainly intended to guide the consumer in food selection. Nutrition information provided on labels must be true and should not mislead consumers. Nutrition labelling regulations are provided by countries to help manufacturers. The Codex guidelines on Nutrition Labelling provide guidance to member countries to develop or update their national regulations and to encourage harmonization of national standards with international standards. According to it, no food should be described or presented in false, misleading or deceptive way. Nutrition labelling cannot solve nutrition problems, instead it is one of the elements of nutrition policy.

11.1. Nutrition Facts

Nutrition Facts means the nutritional information required for most of the packaged food in many countries giving the energy value and nutrients contained in the food. Nutrition facts labels are required by regulation similar to other types of food labels. It provides detailed information on the nutrient content of the food such as the amount of fat, sugar, sodium and dietary fiber.

Introduction

The international fish trade increases day by day reaching to a tune of USD 151 billion in 2020 (FAO, 2022). Many developing countries like India gain benefits from this trade as income through net foreign exchange reached to a level of 8.09 billion USD in 2019-20. Seafood supplied by developing countries contribute to 77% of fish consumption worldwide. The European Union (EU) is the single largest market for fish and fishery products to a tune of 91.74 billion USD in 2022 as a consequence of an increased per capita consumption among its Member States. Spain, Italy, Germany and the United Kingdom are the largest importer of fish and fishery products.

To protect consumer health and to protect the territory from the introduction of animal and plant diseases, the European Community (EC) has laid down joint conditions for imports of foodstuffs. The Directorate General for Health and Consumer Protection (DG SANCO) is responsible for food safety in the EU. The import rules for fishery products are framed of high standards with respect to hygiene, consumer safety and animal health status. It is important that importing countries and food business operators (FBOs) must understand the fundamental principles and requirements of the European Food Law to ensure efficient and smooth imports. The EU system relies on Government to Government assurances without any intervention of any private type certification or standards. The Competent Authority (CA) in the country of origin is responsible for giving the official guarantees to the EU regarding compliance and conformity to all requirements of its legislation. The Export Inspection Agency (EIA) is the Competent Authority in India for issuing the required official guarantees for export of fish and fishery products. The EIA maintains a complete list of all establishments under its control.

Introduction

In all countries, food is governed by a complexity of laws and regulations, which set out the Government requirements to be met by food chain operators to ensure food safety and quality. Food laws and regulations also govern standards that ensure the safety, quality, composition and suitability of food for consumers. Food laws and regulations of any nation depends on whether a nation adopts International norms developed by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) of the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations as well as the World Health Organization (WHO).

8.1. Food Laws

Food law means legislation that regulates the production, trade and handling of food. It covers the regulation of food control, food safety, quality and relevant aspects of food trade across the entire food chain, from the production to the consumer. Food laws protect the consumers against unsafe, adulterated and misbranded food and facilitate the movement of food across borders to sustain a fair trade.

Each nation administers its own laws, regulations and standards. It is also not static always and is constantly revised and updated in all nations. The food business operators (FBO) must obtain up-to-date information on any changes made in legislation, that are likely to affect the product standards. The regulations of all nations shall be obtained from their respective websites of the national ministries.

8.1.1. International Legislations

8.1.1.1. United States of America (USA)

In USA, the Food and Drug Act (1906) and the Federal Meat Inspection Act (1906) are the first federal food laws passed to protect American consumers. Later, Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (1938) regulated the meat and poultry products. At present, Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA), 2011 regulates all food products. https://www.fda.gov/food/guidance- regulation- food- and dietary- supplements/ food- safety- modernization- act- fsma. Manufacturers play important role in preventing food borne illness. The Act gave the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) the authority to oversee and enforce supply chains. The Act shifts the focus towards prevention of food borne illness and insists every FBO to register with the FDA.

Introduction

The risk assessment is gaining importance as the scientifically-based approach for the development of food safety and quality standards. It is a logical extension of HACCP revolution. In hazard analysis, first the hazards likely to occur in foods are identified, then an assessment is made of the severity of each hazard, and an evaluation is done of its likelihood to occur. Severity and likelihood are the two factors involved in risk assessment. Second, the increase in international trade has raised new safety and quality challenges. New approaches address the risk of cross-border transmission of infectious and hazardous agents with emerging food-borne diseases and quality problems. This has led to the development of a new safety and quality regulatory framework in 1995, the Sanitary and Phytosanitary (SPS) and the Technical Barriers to Trade (TBT) Agreements of the World Trade Organization (WTO). In these two Agreements, two provisions are of importance to fish safety and quality:

• National SPS and quality requirements should reflect standards agreed on in the international standards setting bodies i.e. Codex Alimentarius for food quality and safety.

• Domestic standards can be developed based on scientific risk assessment.

Risk assessment of microbiological hazards is identified as a priority area by the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC). In 1999, the Codex Committee on Food Hygiene (CCFH) in the 32nd session, identified a list of 21 pathogen commodity combinations that require expert risk assessment advice. FAO and WHO jointly launched a programme with the objective to provide an expert advice on risk assessment of microbiological hazards in foods to their member countries and to the CAC. Under which, expert groups are established to examine four priority pathogens: product pairings, e.g. Listeria monocytogenes in ready-to-eat food; Salmonella in eggs and broiler chickens; Campylobacter spp. in broiler chickens; and Vibrio spp. in seafoods. Risk assessment is therefore important throughout all aspects of the seafood industry - for companies, national governments and for international regulators.