eChapters

Introduction

In India, the Micro and Small Enterprises (MSEs) sector plays a pivotal role in the overall industrial economy of the country. It is estimated that in terms of value, the sector accounts for about 39 per cent of the manufacturing output and around 33 per cent of the total export of the country. Further, in recent years the MSE sector has consistently registered higher growth rate compared to the overall industrial sector. The major advantage of the sector is its employment potential at low capital cost. As per available statistics, this sector employs an estimated 31 million persons spread over 12.8 million enterprises and the labour intensity in the MSE sector is estimated to be almost 4 times higher than the large enterprises.

Definition for SMEs is often considered to be an obstacle for business studies and market research. Definitions in use today define thresholds in terms of employment, turnover and assets. They also incorporate a reasonable amount of flexibility around year-to-year changes in these measures so that a business qualifying as an SME in one year can have a reasonable expectation of remaining an SME in the next.

Introduction

Fisheries represent an important and fast growing food production sector in India that contributes more than 1% to the National GDP and 4.7% to the agricultural GDP. With an annual production of about 7 million tonnes from marine and inland waters, the country is the 3rd fish producer in the world and the 2nd largest producer of inland fish, next only to China. With a coastline of 8,129 km and EEZ of 2.02 sq km, our marine fish production is to the tune of 2.95 million tonnes. Similarly, the inland fisheries resources comprising 29,000 km of rivers, 0.3 million ha of estuaries, 0.19 million ha of backwaters and lagoons, 3.15 million ha of reservoirs, 0.2 million ha of floodplain wetlands. 0.72 million ha of upland lakes and 2.34 million ha of ponds and tanks produce 3.76 million tonnes annually. Annual export earnings from fish and shellfish are about Rs.8.357 crore, accounting for nearly 20% of the agricultural export. Fish is a health food that is relatively cheap and affordable to the poor. Fisheries and aquaculture provides income, food and livelihood to more than 14 million people directly or indirectly. The annual per capita availability of fish in the country is 9 kg that sustains the domestic market price of fish and the sector has registered an impressive overall annual growth rate of over 4% over the years, with growth in some farming activities going beyond 5%. However, stagnating growth in marine and inland capture fisheries is a cause of concern.

Introduction

Ration formulation is a process by which different feed ingredients are combined in a proportion necessary to provide the animal with proper amount of nutrients needed at a particular stage of production. It requires the knowledge about nutrients, feedstuffs and animal in the development of nutritionally adequate rations that will be eaten in sufficient amounts to provide the level of production at a reasonable cost. The ration should be palatable and will not cause any serious digestive disturbance or toxic effects to the animal.
 
Different species, strains or classes of animals have different requirements for energy (carbohydrates and fats), proteins, minerals and vitamins in order to maintain its various functions like maintenance, reproduction, egg production, milk production and/or growth.
  
Least-cost ration formulation for non-ruminants is being prepared by  linear computer programming. For ruminants the approach used is to maximize the use of roughage, then, concentrate is used to supply the deficient  nutrients to meet the requirement of the animals. It should be remembered that rations for ruminants are formulated on dry matter basis due to wide variations in moisture content of feeds especially roughage.

Introduction

Ever since the civilization of mankind, efforts have been directed towards accumulating and storing foods when they are in plenty in order to meet needs during the days of scarcity. In case of food grains not much problem was faced due to nature’s noble way of reducing the moisture level as the grains mature. However, in case of fruits and vegetables, long-term storage in their fresh form was not possible (until development of modern methods) primarily due to their high degree of perishability owing to high moisture content of these commodities at the time of harvest.

Appropriate Post Harvest Management (PHM) of horticultural crops fruits and vegetables in their fresh form prolongs their usefulness and in some cases improves their quality. It also checks market glut, helps in orderly marketing, increases financial gain to the producers and preserves quality of produce for much longer time. Horticultural produce like fruits, vegetables and cut flowers are living, respiring tissues separated from the parent plant. Therefore, the aim of PHM is to control various physiological processes viz. respiration, transpiration and other metabolic activities to keep produce in maximum usable form.

Introduction

The food processing sector is highly fragmented industry, it widely comprises of the following sub-segments: fruits and vegetables, milk and milk products, beer and alcoholic beverages, meat and poultry, marine products, grain processing, packaged or convenience food and packaged drinks. A huge number of entrepreneurs in this industry are small in terms of their production and operations, and are largely concentrated in the unorganized segment. This segment accounts for more than 70% of the output in terms of volume and 50% in terms of value. Though the organized sector seems comparatively small, it is growing at a much faster pace.

The food processing industry can be classified into three categories: organized (25%), small scale (33%) and unorganized (42%) (Source: FAIDA/ Minstry of Food Processing Industries). The share of food processing in total manufacturing is only 9% in India.

Introduction

The floriculture industry in India is characterized by growing traditional flowers (loose flowers) and cut flowers under open field conditions and protected environment conditions, respectively. India also has a strong dry flower industry, which contributes a major share to the overall trade. Other segments like fillers, potted plants, seeds and planting material, turf grass industry and value added products also contribute a share in the overall growth of the floriculture sector. 

Area and Production

With the rise in people’s investment in flower purchase for gifts at social ceremonies or for home decoration, the focus shifted to production of cut flowers too. The fresh increase in the area under flowers is more for cut flower production, but not necessarily at the cost of loose flower production.
A large share of the total world production area is in India. With an estimated area of 1,60,000 ha (2007-08), India perhaps is the largest production base in the world. The last decade and a half has witnessed significant increase in the area under flowers, which has tripled from 53,000 ha (1993-94). 
(Fig. 1).

Introduction

India is blessed with varied agro-climatic conditions. This enables India to grow almost all types of horticultural crops namely fruits, vegetables, potato, tropical tuber crops and mushroom; ornamental crops; medicinal and aromatic plants, spices and plantation crops like coconut, cashew, cocoa, tea, coffee and rubber, in one region or the other throughout the year. India has now a prominent place in world horticulture scenario. Starting from low ebb during first five year, horticulture sector got a boost in 8th plan onwards as a means of diversification to agriculture. Horticulture today, is not merely a means of diversification as envisaged during 80s, but forms an integral part of food, nutrition, economic and employment security. As a result of proper policy initiatives, India is the second largest producer of the fruits and vegetables in the world contributing about 10 per cent to world fruits and 13.8 per cent to vegetable production. Adoption of horticulture crops in production, both by small and marginal farmers, has brought nutritional security and livelihood security in many regions of the country, e.g. Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Kerala and improved overall socioeconomic conditions of the people e.g. Jharkhand and West Bengal.

Introduction

Vermicompost is an organic manure (bio-fertilizer) produced as the vermicast by earth worm feeding on biological waste material and plant residues. This compost is an odorless and clean organic material containing adequate quantities of N, P, K and several micronutrients essential for plant growth. Vermicompost is a preferred nutrient source for organic farming. It is eco-friendly, non-toxic, consumes low energy input for composting and is a recycled biological product. Earthworms are soil invertebrates well known for their contribution to soil transformation and turnover, by breaking down of organic material. The effect of earthworms on soils can take three main forms: effects on biological, physical, or chemical soil properties and processes. These can operate eother directly or indirectly.
 
Farmers are aware that earthworms are generally beneficial.  However, few are familiar with the important species they have on their land and the amount or number of earthworm required for their soil is also a big question to them. It is important that farmers must identify and familiarize with the species of earthworms so that they can be utilized for the purpose of vermicomposting.

Introduction

India possesses one of the largest livestock populations in the world, which is more than 515 million with the top position in cattle (199 million), buffalo (105 million), goat (141 million) and sheep (91 million), poultry (385 million) (DAHD, 2009). Out of the total livestock in the country, around 38.2 per cent are cattle, 20.2 percent are buffaloes, 12.7 per cent are sheep, 25.6 per cent are goats and only 2.8 per cent are pigs. All other animals are less than 0.50 per cent of the total livestock population. India has a large genetic diversity of livestock containing 30 breeds of cattle, 10 breeds of buffaloes, 42 breeds of sheep, 20 breeds of goats and 7 breeds of camels. Further, the country has 14 per cent of the world’s cattle population and 57 per cent of the world’s buffalo population and is on top in terms of the buffalo population and at 2nd position in terms of the total cattle population in the world. Of the total buffalo and cattle breeds of the world, approximately 75% and 20% respectively are available in Asia and 15% and 5% in India.

Introduction

Animal husbandry has always been an integral part of Indian civilization and our country possesses rich biodiversity of animal genetic resources, which are spread over diverse agro-climatic regions. These resources have been developed by our ancestors over several generations and have acquired special attributes like remarkable adaptability to environment, management conditions and genetic resistance to most tropical diseases besides survival on poor quality of feed and fodder. In spite of multiple threats of change, replacement, degradation and extinction, this biodiversity of farm animals comprises of 30 well-described breeds of cattle, 10 of buffaloes, 20 of goats, 40 of sheep, 8 of camel, 6 of horses, 20 of poultry besides large number of variants of native ponies, pig, donkey, yak and mithun. This mega-diversity is not accidental, nor it is purely natural, rather, it is the outcome of thousands of years of deliberate selection and planned exposure to a range of natural conditions. The description of various breeds of most economically important species of livestock viz. cattle, buffalo, goat and sheep and their genetic improvement is as follows:

Introduction

In recent past, ‘entrepreneurship’ has been a buzz word in Indian livestock business sector. It literally means ‘turning innovations into incomes’. As a whole, livestock is a fast growing sector in Indian agricultural economy, growing at an annual rate of approximately 4.5%. This has opened avenues for commercialization of more and more technologies involving livestock health and production. According to a recent estimate by FAO (2009), meat sector in India is also growing at a rate of 4.5% per annum over last decade and pigs, contributing about 8.2% of country’s total meat production, have a tremendous role to play in the face of globalization, strict WTO regulations and emerging IPR issues. The ‘knowledge economy’ is coming to play an important role in such situation, meaning, much wider application of livestock technologies in livestock business.

Introduction

The productivity of pulses in India has remained stagnant over the past several decades. In the case of pigeonpea, which a major pulse crop in India, it has been hovering around 700 kg ha-1 for the last five decades. Uttar Pradesh (UP) occupies 9.14% (2.16 million ha) of the total area under pigeonpea in the country (23.63 million ha). Poor crop management practices adopted by the farmers, non-availability of quality seed of improved varieties, damage by insect pests and diseases and drought are some of the factors responsible low productivity in pulses. In a recent review, Maruthi Shankar et al. (2004) identified shortage of quality seed as one of the major constraints for increasing pigeonpea production in India. The genetically pure seed alone can increase productivity by 10-15% (Saxena, 2006).

Despite release of several improved varieties of pigeonpea, local landraces dominate the cultivation of pigeonpea in the country. Timely availability of quality seed of improved varieties at affordable price remains one of the major concerns in pigeonpea cultivation. Most of the farmers procure their pigeonpea seed from local traders or rely on their ‘own-saved’ seed.

Introduction

Self Help Groups (SHGs) are fast emerging as a powerful tool of socio-economic empowerment of the poor in rural areas. These are based on the principle by the people, for the people and of the people. Such groups are participatory processes to provide opportunities for people to share knowledge, common experiences and problems.

Self Help Groups (SHGs) of women in India have been recognized as an effective strategy for the empowerment of women in rural as well as urban areas, bringing women together from all spheres of life to light for their rights or a cause. Since the overall empowerment of women is crucially dependent on economic empowerment,  women through these SHGs work on a range of issues such as health, nutrition, agriculture, forestry etc. besides income generation activities and seeking micro credit. “SHG is a small, economically homogeneous and affinity based group of people who have decided to save and contribute to a common fund to be lent to its members as per the groups decisions”. Generally, a ‘Self Help Group’ (SHG) is formed when members of a community, who have the same or similar problem, come together, meet, share experiences, have discussions and thereby arrive at solutions.

Introduction

The farmer’s socio-economic conditions continue to be poor. The job availability and opportunities are also very poor in rural areas and are declining with time. There are several instances of despair amongst farmers due to heavy burden of loan, which they took for procuring inputs for crop production. In majority of the cases loan is still borrowed from the local moneylenders on a very high rate of interest, as it is convenient and simple for them. The despair arises due to non-payment of loan in the event of crop failure or market crash for that crop, for which he had taken loan. The reason for crop failure may be adverse climatic conditions or pest attack, which could not be managed due lack of know-how and non-availability of good quality agro-chemicals. Report about the presence of spurious pesticide and fertilizers in the market are quite common in media. Farmers meet unfair treatment in the market while procuring inputs and marketing their produce. The market is uncertain and several times the farmers are not able to meet even the variable cost of production.  There is no other option left except ploughing back the crop in the field. The majorities of our farmers are small and marginal and unable to bear such losses on one hand and government doesn’t have a contingency plan to help the poor farmers on other hand. Even if it provides some help it doesn’t reach the affected farmers.

Introduction

The process of agricultural modernization has produced three distinct types of agriculture. These are industrialized, green revolution and low-external input and unimproved (Chambers et al. 1989) . The industrialized and the green revolution agriculture have been able to respond to the technological package, producing high input, high output systems of agriculture. Most agricultural systems in the industrialized countries count as high external input systems save for the relatively small number of organic farmers (Pretty 1995) . In the countries of the Third World, high-external input systems are found in the large irrigated plains and deltas of South, Southeast and East Asia, and parts of Latin America and North America, but also in patches in other regions. In the industrialized countries farmers modernized by introducing machinery, replacing labour, specializing operations and changing practices to ensure greater production. In the green revolution areas the success lay in agricultural scientists breeding new varieties of stable cereals that matured quickly, and use of inorganic fertilizers, pesticides, machinery, credit and water regulation.

Introduction

Indian economy is characterized predominance of rural population and is heavily dependence on agriculture sector. The major challenges to the growth and prosperity of the country are unemployment and poverty. Various attempts by government in the past have yielded only marginal success. The problem of rural unemployment and poverty can be solved by creating some new avenues for employment generation in the rural areas. Majority of farmers are still using traditional farming practices. The concept of entrepreneurship in agriculture can play vital role in improving their livelihood security and alleviating the poverty.  The individuals involved in farming/industrial activity should posses drive, ambition, foresight, and imaginations to break their traditional barrier, overcome social inertia, transform theory into practice. The individuals performing these functions are the entrepreneurs, and their enterprising ability and skill can be termed as entrepreneurship (Kothari, 1989).

Introduction

In India Agriculture was practiced formerly on a subsistence basis; the villages were self sufficient, people exchanged their goods, and services within the village on a barter basis. With the improvement in rural infrastructure all these goods and services has become commercial in character, resulting in development of Micro-enterprises and requirement of their business promotion.
Businesses with five or fewer employees, called micro-enterprises, support many rural and urban households in developing nations. The term marketing connotes a series of activities involved in moving the goods from the point of production to the point of consumption. 
Marketing is an integral part of micro-enterprise products to encourage them to make more investment and to increase production. Thus there is an increasing awareness that it is not enough just to produce however it must be marketed as well.

Introduction

With the major thrust of extension agencies now focused on production techniques, the market-led extension holds the key to the future. This assumes greater significance in the light of the new international trading regime under WTO as the export opportunities are now being opened-up to India, which may have direct implications on agro-enterprise development.

In the light of the above, the extension functionaries in India are presently ill-equipped to deal with such challenges. It appears now that the production of the agri-produce is going to be dictated by market requirements. In this age of WTO, the extension methodology also needs to work out for dissemination of good agricultural practices to the farmers based on internationally accepted standards. This recommendation has now been made in the 05th National Extension Education Congress held in 2009 jointly conducted by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) and CS Azad University of Agriculture and Technology, Kanpur (Proceedings of the 05th National Extension Education Congress, March 05-09, 2009, ICAR and CSAU, Kanpur). 

Farm Innovation and Promotion Fund (FIPF)
Introduction
Many innovative initiatives are being attempted by various agencies in the Held of Agriculture and allied sectors. To support these innovations, NABARD has decided to set up a fund titled “Farm Innovation and Promotion Fund” (FIPF).

Initial Corpus of Fund
Rs. 5 crore (2004-05).

Objectives of the Fund
The objective of the Fund is to support the activities listed below : 
        To demonstrate bankability of new concepts in farm sector
        To develop prototypes for further commercial development
        To support activities connected with market survey for potential assessment/market acceptability for new agri/rural products

Introduction

National Commodity & Derivatives Exchange Limited (NCDEX) is a professionally managed on-line multi commodity exchange offering commodity futures trading in a wide range of commodities viz, agricultural, base metals, precious metals, energy, ferrous metal, and others. The shareholders of NCDEX comprises of large national level institutions, large public sector bank and companies. Promoter shareholders of the Exchange include ICICI Bank Limited (ICICI), Life Insurance Corporation of India (LIC), National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) and National Stock Exchange of India Limited (NSE). Other shareholders are: Canara Bank, Punjab National Bank (PNB), CRISIL Limited, Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative Limited (IFFCO), Goldman Sachs, Intercontinental Exchange (ICE) and Shree Renuka Sugars Limited. NCDEX is the only commodity exchange in the country promoted by national level institutions. This unique parentage enables it to offer a bouquet of benefits, which are currently in short supply in the commodity markets. The institutional promoters and shareholders of NCDEX are prominent players in their respective fields and bring with them institutional building experience, trust, nationwide reach, technology and risk management skills. 

Introduction

Gamhian concept of development gained inspiration from villages where local resources met the optimum needs of the poorest of the poor. Gandhiji was of the view that the process of development of the Nation must begin from its villages. In a country like India, where villages are in the majority the prosperity of the Nation can only be ensured when fanners are considered as development managers. The economic liberty of individuals and villages in effect will lead to the prosperity of the Nation. The anomaly in this regard in our country can be seen in the overcrowded cities and desolated a village that is indicative of major gaps in our approach. Acute migration has created a dearth of strong hands in the villages resulting in overcrowded cities, putting tremendous strains on its infrastructure. Thus economy and-ecology of most regions in the country, both rural as well as the urban areas are threatened.

The Independence has been attained by the nation 65 years ago but Economic Slavery is pervasive everywhere in the Rural India. There must be an Economic Independence drive in the country. This will check rising Economic inequity between rural urban regions.

Introduction

An agricultural project is defined as an investment activity where financial resources are expended to create the capital assets with an anticipation of benefits over time. In other words, it is an activity where money is spent to realize the expected returns and requires planning, financing and implementation as a unit. In fact, the whole complex of activities using resources to gain benefits constitute the agricultural projects. The agricultural project may include projects such as irrigation, dairy, poultry, piggery, rural credit, social forestry, land reclamation/leveling, rural development projects, etc. Moreover, the dividing line between an “investment “ and a “production” expenditure is an agricultural project.  For instance, the fertilizers, pesticides, seeds, etc. are called investments where returns are realized over the service period of asset. Likewise, the plantation of fruit crops though constitute an investment yet the paddy transplanting as production expense, i.e., the difference exists in time span to grow plants.

Introduction

Home to the largest population of poor in the world, India has been a natural candidate for experimenting with micro finance as a tool for poverty alleviation. With a nationalized formal banking sector that has emphasized rural and developmental banking for several decades now, India’s involvement with small credit targeted primarily at the rural poor is hardly new. Micro-credit, in the sense of small loans to the poor, is of ancient origin in India. Micro-Finance has, in recent times, come to be recognised and accepted as one of the new development paradigms for alleviating poverty through social and economic empowerment of the poor, with focus on empowering women. Experiences of different anti-poverty and other welfare programmes within the country and elsewhere, have shown that the key to its success lies in the participation of community based organisations at the grassroot level. People’s participation in credit delivery, recovery and linking of formal credit institutions to borrowers through the intermediation of Self Help Groups (SHGs) have been recognised as a supplementary mechanism for providing credit support to the rural poor. Poor people need micro-credit for various and different purposes. It may be to meet the major household expenses, emergency needs or even basic livelihood support.

Role of Ministry of Micro Small & Medium Enterprises

Engage in promotion & development of MSME’S in the country through framing proper policies and schemes.
Implementing policies and schemes through its attached office DC, MSME, Nirman Bhawan, New Delhi. 

ABSTRACT

In India agroforestry practices are ancient but the story of organized agroforestry research began in 1979 at Imphal. Considerable efforts have been expended towards promoting and implementing agroforestry practices in the country by establishing centers for agroforestry research in almost all agro-climatic zones. Though almost 30 years has passed since systematic research started however, adoption of agroforestry is still in patches. This is because of myths attached with integrating trees with crops, market condition, rules regarding timber movements, allelopathy, long duration and so on. This paper examines the various arguments for and against agroforestry practices in India and presents the opportunity and challenges in adopting agroforestry as a sustainable land use practice.

INTRODUCTION

In India the green revolution led to increase in production through enhanced productivity. Unfortunately the population growth is increasing at a rapid rate and there is an urgent need to accelerate agricultural growth to address issues on food security, nutrition adequacy, rural income generation, employment and poverty. Despite higher production, the per capita availability of food over time has not increased significantly. About 70 to 80 per cent of our people depend on agriculture for their livelihood. Contribution of agriculture to GDP is declining; this affects the rural poor most. The urban – rural divide and regional disparities are on the increase. To achieve a desirable rate of 7 per cent growth in the economy, agriculture must register a growth not less then 4 per cent. Now it is around 2 per cent and is declining (Singh, 2002). These continuous improvements in productivity are essentials but these must be capable of being maintained in perpetuity. In other words, an evergreen revolution rooted in the principles of ecology, economics, social and gender equity, energy conservation, employment generation and social auditing, is essential in major farming systems of India. Land, water and vegetation care constitute the foundation for building up such an evergreen revolution movement.

ABSTRACT

Agroforestry research and development in scientific mode in India started about thirty years ago with few individual scientists working on the aspect. However, concentrated efforts started with the establishment of a network under co-ordinated mode throughout the country in the year 1983. Since then lot of research has been done and recommendations made. The present paper compiles the chronological sequences of the starting of AICRP on AF along with its co-ordinating partners. Suitable perennial species and agroforestry systems recommended for respective agroclimatic zones of the country are also compiled. National seminars and group meeting conducted for popularizing and extending agroforestry to every corner of the country had also been provided.

INTRODUCTION

Agroforestry is an age old practice and was a way of life since the settled agriculture evolved from forest. However, with passage of time the cropping system was converted to monocropping and in the way the benefits of integrating the perennials with annuals were forgotten. In the late 70’s of 20^th century, benefits of integrating perennials in cropping system was again realized and efforts were diverted towards scientifically associating the perennials and annuals. Dr. M.S. Swaminathan an eminent scientist while addressing first agroforestry seminar at Imphal in 1979 stated that agroforestry lies the key solution of some of the problems of forestry “what is now important is to give a scientific context and better planning like a good architect who can plan the use of space more efficiently”. This seminar was a spark in the history of scientific agroforestry in India. Taking into account the vide variation in edaphic and climatic factors in India along with the perennial nature of the systems, it was felt that working in isolation would not yield fruitful results and therefore, an association of scientist and institutes of different agroclimatic regions in form of a network was felt imperative and a viable wayout and hence the birth of AICRP on Agroforestry. All India Co-ordinated Research Project on Agroforestry (AICRPAF) was initiated vide ICAR letter number 21(1)/80-SW & DF dated 7^th February, 1983 at 20 centers of which 12 centers were located in State Agricultural Universities and eight at the ICAR institutes. Later on more co-ordinating centers were added and at present there are 37 AICRPAF co-ordinating centers with 10 centers in ICAR institutes and 27 centers located in State Agriculture Universities covering all the major agroecological zones of the country. The coordinating unit of the project was initially located at ICAR, Krishi Bhawan, New Delhi, which was shifted to National Research Center for Agroforestry, Jhansi w.e.f. 1^st April, 1997 under the administrative control of Director, NRCAF.

ABSTRACT

The state of Jammu and Kashmir, especially the valley of Kashmir, has a rich diversity of traditional agroforestry models, which are in existence since time immemorial. Agroforestry is based primarily on natural occurrence of trees. The paper highlights the traditional agroforestry systems prevailing in the valley. A number of studies have been undertaken since the inception of AICRP-AF in University of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Kashmir. Besides design and diagnostic survey, studies on evaluation of twelve multipurpose tree species identified during design and diagnostic survey and designing of various agroforestry models for different problematic sites have been undertaken. These studies have been tested over a period of time and have been found suitable for different sites. The out come of these studies and the recommended agroforestry systems are given in this paper.

INTRODUCTION

Land is a vital natural resource and is the basis of our existence. Due to mounting pressure of increasing human and livestock population it has been subjected to various pressures and misuse resulting in degradation of land and loss of biodiversity. Management of land is therefore, of paramount importance so that increasing needs of human and livestock are met on sustainable basis. During the last three decades agroforestry has been recognised as a distinct land management system, which is destined to play an important role in socio-economic transformation of marginal lands into more productive agrarian economy. India has a long tradition of agroforestry, farmers and land owners in different parts of the country integrate a variety of woody perennials in their crop and livestock production fields, depending upon the agro climatic conditions and local needs. Most of these practices are, however, location specific and information on these is very scanty, therefore, benefits have remained vastly under exploited and un extrapolated to other sites.

ABSTRACT

Deforestation, land degradation, biodiversity decline, demand of fuelwood, fodder and timber had necessitated the planners and scientists to develop a system of cropping which would be able to revert these detrimental effect of exploitation and simultaneously provide the day-to-day needs. In present paper we have revisited our ancestors who practiced agriculture in a sustainable basis by keeping trees in the field. This paper intends to highlight some of the problems which are being faced in North-Western Himalayas and suggest different agroforestry practices which should be adopted to sustainable utilize our resources.

INTRODUCTION

Though late, the country and the society have gradually started to realize the detrimental deterioration of our ecosystem and environment. There are several factors and reasons for the same. However, land use in the country in general and hills in particular have proved to be one of the most important factors and needs much of attention for proper planning. The vital role of the forests in maintaining the balance of the ecosystem has long been acknowledged world over. In our country too, it was rightly resolved through a National Forest Policy Resolution in the years 1952 to bring at least twothird of the land in hills under the forest cover. This decision, though wise timely and farsighted, was never implemented with same spirit and there are evidences to accept the fact that effective forest cover in hilly areas is far less. The increasing need of expanding industrialization and urbanization coupled with population growth, the process of illegal and indiscriminate cutting of trees is resulting in consistent decrease of forest cover in the hills. The cultivation of land on steep slopes and hillsides is causing heavy loss of top soil and depleting the productivity of these soils besides siltation of river beds and cultivated lands down below. Coupled with this is the reckless destruction of vegetative cover by way of over-grazing which is resulting in large scale denudation and degradation of lands and thereby increasing acreage under wastelands. With this background the regular rains for which most of our country was well known have become irregular and drought have become a permanent menace and crores of rupees spent on relief work. The need for developing correct methodologies of land uses has become imperative to protect the existing forest cover, whether on public or private lands. Forest influences the rural prosperity and the human needs for the growing population have to be ensured while preserving the environment and ecological balance. A sustainable land-use system in conformity with ecological stability, economic viability and above risk aversion is desirable land use pattern in the Himalayan region.

ABSTRACT

The practice of agroforestry in the hills and mountains of Himachal Pradesh is as old as the hill agriculture itself. Farmers are retaining trees on the farmlands for the multiple benefits they provide. The selection of the trees, their planting pattern and density is chosen in such a way that it had minimum effect on the associated crop. The present paper gives the prevalent agroforestry systems with their components in different agroclimatic zones of Himachal Pradesh along with their management practices. Adoption of landuse practices depends to a large extent on status of the farmer concerned. Paper presents the association between type of farmer and the corresponding agroforestry systems they adopt. Sustainability of agroforestry systems, their role in climate change and social and economic gain of agroforestry systems in hills had also been detailed. A comprehensive list of agroforestry components had also been appended as annexures.

INTRODUCTION

Farmers throughout the Indian Himalayas covering about 16 states partially or fully have nurtured trees on their farms and in the agricultural landscape both for production and protection benefits for millennia. Mountainous region like Himachal Pradesh located in western Himalayan range present wide range of tree growing practices and systems owing to the diverse physiographic and demographic mosaic.

The state is located between 30° 22’ 40” to 33° 12’ 40” N latitude and 75°47’ 55” to 79°4’ 20” E longitude and extends over a geographical area of 55673 km² which is 1.69 per cent of the country’s area and 10.5 per cent of the Himalayan landmass. This land locked state is bordered by Jammu and Kashmir in the north, Punjab and Haryana in the south–west and Uttaranchal in the south–east. In the north–east the state forms the international boundary with the Tibet. Agricultural landscapes are characterized by undulating topography wherein terraced fields are made on medium to steep slopes. Crop fields on sloppy lands are in general 5-10 m wide and 20-30 m long almost conical on both ends and wide in the middle. In valley areas and on lands with gentle to mild slopes (up to 40%) large sloping fields have been developed manually by the farmers where Government has undertaken land consolidation.

ABSTRACT

The paper introduces the biophysical environment and landuse pattern of newly formed state. On the basis of ownership of land the scope of adopting agroforestry had been discussed. Existing agroforestry systems under different agroclimatic zones of Uttaranchal are provided with examples. Tree improvement program and system development research carried out under AICRP on Agroforestry for Terai zone of the state has also been discuused in the paper. Constraints in adopting and carrying out research in agroforestry along with future strategies to extend agroforestry in Uttaranchal are also given in the paper.

INTRODUCTION

Uttaranchal, formed on November 9, 2000, is the 27^th state in India. The state is spread over 53,483 km² of land, which extends between 77° 34’ and 81° 02’ E longitude and between 28° 43’ to 31° 27’ N latitude. It covers 1.67 per cent of the country’s total area and is home to 84.7 lakhs of people as per the provisional census report 2001. The entire state forms part of the Central Himalayas. The state is strategically located and forms part of the Northern boundary of the country sharing its borders with Nepal and China. The entire region, except the southern most foothills belt, is mountainous with a series of ridges and valleys. Starting with an altitude of about 240 m in the tarai on the southern fringes, the terrains rise to 7817 m in the north with in a short width span of about 160 km. It touches Tibet in the north, Himachal in the west and northwest, gangetic plains of Uttar Pradesh in the South and Nepal in the east. Uttaranchal has two administrative divisons, the western half known as Garhwal and the the eastern region known by the name of Kumaon.

ABSTRACT

Punjab is the richest state in the country in term of per capita income and has earned the name as food bowl of the country by putting 84-85 per cent of its geographical area under highly intensive, technical and mechanical agriculture with cropping intensity as high as 185 per cent and contributing more than one third of rice and half of its wheat production to the central pool of food reserve. The food grain production in the state has increased approximately twelve times in a span of about 50 years after independence from 20 lac tones in 1950-51 to 234.89 lakh tonnes in 2002-2003. Achieving this high productivity without caring for natural resources has resulted in a considerable loss in the inherent production potential and deterioration of soil health. As a result, man is getting serious warning signals in the form of lowering of water table, drought, high rate of environmental pollution, extremes of climatic parameters, etc. Agriculture in the state has become too intensive, wasteful and reckless and the radical changes are required to maintain the balance. Therefore, there is a strong thinking to diversify farming in the state to maintain the sustainability of the whole system. The state government is stressing hard to save the natural resources through the diversification in traditional crop rotation and adopt resource-conserving measures.

ABSTRACT

Haryana being predominantly agricultural state had only 2.86 per cent recorded forests at the time of its inception. Agroforestry has been an age old practice in Haryana as in other parts of India. It has existed in various forms through the time immemorial. Farm boundary plantation/natural regeneration and scattered trees in the farmlands were the main agroforestry interventions in Haryana till the seventies. To counter the environmental degradation and to provide fuel, fodder and timber different tree-crop combinations were tried for accessing their compatibility. As a result number of agroforestry systems had been recommended and are discussed in this paper. The paper also include methods of managing the perennial component of agroforestry system. Economics of some of the successful systems has also been discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Haryana state lies in the Indo-gangetic plains of North-west India. It has 44,212 sq.km of land and 90 per cent of this is in plains and the remaining area is in Shiwalik and Aravalli hills. Yamuna plains in the North and sandy plains in the South and West respectively have 50 per cent and 40 per cent of above land. More than 80 percent of the land is under agriculture. Canal and tube well irrigation is available for 65 per cent of arable land. Two crops per annum are a routine practice in Haryana. The climate of Haryana is arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid. It is sub-tropical, continental and monsoonic type. The range of temperature daily as well as annual is extreme. It varies from 1°C in winter to 47°C in summer. Mean annual average temperature varies from 23°C to 26°C. May and June are the hottest months while December and January are the coldest ones. The normal annual rainfall ranges from 300 mm in the southwestern parts of Bhiwani, Hisar and Sirsa districts to about 1500 mm in the northeastern hilly tract of Ambala district. The mean daily pan evaporation ranges from 2.4 mm in December and January to 13.4 mm in May and June.

ABSTRACT

The western part of India particularly Gujarat and Rajasthan received erratic and scanty rainfall and have sandy to sandy loam soil. In such climatic and edaphic conditions failure of crop is a regular phenomenon. In such situations a cropping system is required which can protect the associated crops from extremes of climatic condition and/or provide alternative/additional income. Agroforestry has such potentials; as a result lot of research had been done on agroforestry. This paper provides some of the agroforestry system and practices, which are suitable for Gujarat. The hurdles in adoption of agroforestry and its future prospects are also provided.

INTRODUCTION

North and North-West Gujarat fall under scarcity zone, where rainfall is inadequate as well as erratic in nature. Sandy loam soils with low moisture retention capacity pose problems of low and unstable crop production and degradation due to soil erosion. Under these situation, adoption of a high yielding, more remunerative, cost effective, compatible and multipurpose system ie Agroforestry is a dire necessity.

ABSTRACT

Scattered trees/shrubs in agricultural fields or grazing fields are common features of landscape in arid regions of India. These trees were considered as insurance to the people during drought years. In recent past importance of these trees in such areas had been recognized by the scientific world. Lot of research had been made and is continuing to identify and research the tree-crop combination. This paper reviews the tested agroforestry systems in arid region of country with particular reference to Rajasthan. Economic gains due to technology intervention in agroforestry system is also given.

INTRODUCTION

The people in the arid regions of India, since time immemorial has developed location specific agroforestry systems. The scattered trees / shrubs in the agricultural fields or grazing fields are common features of the landscape. Since the beginning of cultivation the farmers deliberately allow the trees /shrubs to grow with the crops. They have screened the trees / shrubs based on their utility. They have considered that these trees are insurance to them during drought years. These trees provided lean period fodder, fruits, vegetable, timber, fuel, fiber etc. as farmers knew that occurrence of drought is common phenomenon in Rajasthan and due to failure of rains the crops failed to grow or their production is abysmally low. In the recent past efforts have been made to identify existing agroforestry systems for different agro-ecological zones (Malhotra, 1984 ; Harsh et al., 1992 ; Saxena, 1997). Efforts have also been made to study the production systems under each agroforestry systems and also to improve the existing systems through technological interventions (Harsh and Tewari, 2003; Tewari et al., 2004; Harsh et al., 2004).

ABSTRACT

Eastern part of the Uttar Pradesh falls in mid-Gangetic plain commonly called as ‘Purvanchal’. It is divided into three ecozones : i) North eastern tarai, ii) Eastern Plains, and iii) Vindhyan. Most of the farmers of the region have subsistence agriculture with small land holding. Although total forest area is 10.69 per cent of the geographical area, the actual well stocked forests (medium and good forests) in the region are confined to 3.51%. Vindhyan zone indicates higher dependence for fire wood (35% of the total need) on natural forests. Cow dung is major source used as fuel in Eastern plains (65% of the fuel requirement). The cropping systems are different in rainfed and irrigated lands. Surveys of different parts of the eastern U. P. indicate that people have a progressive attitude towards agroforestry. However, due to land hunger most of the farmers develop homesteads. Agrihorticulture system is most popular system adopted by large and medium farmers in the region. Agrisilvihorticulture system is adopted by the farmers of Eastern plains and North eastern tarai zones. Agrisilviculture, Silvihorticulture, Agrisilvihorticulture and sivipastoral systems researched by us, are recommended for adoption by the farmers.

ABSTRACT

Eastern Uttar Pradesh has 27 districts and lowest per capita net domestic output then other regions of the state. Rainfall is the only source of water. Acute shortage of fuel, fodder and timber makes agroforestry an important proposition for this region. The paper presents different agroforestry models developed by Allahabad Agriculture Institute for the region. Economics of the prominent agroforestry systems has been worked out. Emerging innovative agroforestry practices like aqua farming, honey bee, sericulture are discussed. Recommended species and agroforestry models for utilizing wastelands of the region are also provided.

INTRODUCTION

Eastern Uttar Pradesh covers an area of 87,840 sq. km. ranging from 24° - 28°20’ N latitude and 81° - 85° E longitude (map of Eastern U.P.) with population of 632 lakhs (Census, 2001). It has 27 districts and the lowest per capital net domestic output than other regions of U.P. It has 6 districts which are under developed and 15 districts are industrially backward. The contour of 100m roughly marks the western limit of Eastern Uttar Pradesh. It is mostly filled with deep alluvial deposits by the Ganga and tributaries. The Microregional variations are highlighted by the Bangar (the old alluvium) and the Khedar (new alluvium) formations. It enjoys tropical humid climate (rainfall varying from 120 cm to 140 cm). This region is plaughed with recurring floods and droughts. In 1983 Eastern Uttar Pradesh suffered a loss of the order of Rs. 319.12 crores because of the floods; in the same region, drought due to long dry spells left 3.820 lakhs ha. of sown area to wither. The menancing of Ganga – Ghaghara, Doab and recurring drought of trans Yamuna tract of Allahabad district, parts of Mirzapur and Varansi districts and big chunks of usar and unculturable wasteland (2.93 lakh ha) sap agricultural potential of these areas. Hardly 9.54 percent of total geographical area is under forests. Their paucity accenulates the problems of floods and soil erosion. Most Ganga plain is devoid of mineral wealth excepting kankar in Bhanagar tracts, but southern uplands are rich in minerals like limestone, dolomite, silica, sands, marble, building stone, magnesite and coal; organic matter is rich but nitrogen is deficient. Despite of vast water resources percentage of irrigated to gross cropped area is only 40.36 per cent that led cropping intensity only 145.20 and net irrigated to net sown area is 54.22 per cent. It has depressed economy where unemployment and underemployment is rampant, thus out migration is a typical phenomena.

ABSTRACT

Chhattisgarh is a tribal dominating state and is one of the backward and poor area of India in terms of poverty and productivity. The trees have been the part of agriculture in this region since long. The present paper highlights some of the practices which are being adopted by the farmers from time immoral and efforts had been made to fit them in the present day scientific classification system of agroforestry system with their spatial and temporal sequences. Despite of the fact that trees are integral part of farmlands still adoption of agroforestry as a sustainable land use has some constrains which have been discussed and way out suggested. Areas needed in developing agroforestry in the state have also been discussed at the end of the chapter.

ABSTRACT

Madhya Pradesh is declared as mega diversity state in India. It also harbours diversity in human population as 1/4^th of its population is tribal. These tribal people are practicing agroforestry since time immemorial. The state is divided into 11 agro climatic zones. The paper provides the agroforestry systems and species suitable for these zones. The traditional practices and the innovative agroforestry systems developed are also given. Agroforestry systems that are suitable for problematic soil have been briefly discussed. Efforts of different institutes like TFRI, JNKV and projects like TDET, ORP on Agroforestry, AICRP on AF in developing different system and their recommendations are also provided in this paper.

INTRODUCTION

Environment remained in its pristine purity and congeniality till man stayed in the hunting and food gathering stage. But, as he entered in the pastoral age and domesticated animals, he gradually passed from the nomadic stage to settled cultivation. When, he cleared the first patch of earth and upturned the first sod and lifted the first bucket of water, the long story of his interference with environment started. Clearing trees for farming, disturbing the moisture regimes and furrowing the land endangered the phenomenon of erosion leading on to the problem of reducing the soil fertility. At the same time, the art of Agroforestry emerged, though in the most rudimentary fashion, which in varying form and emphasis has continued till today. Coming to recent times, the increasing pressure on land as well as on forests, rising demand for fuel and fodder and finally the requirement of timber for multifarious purposes have strengthen the need of agroforestry as an alternate land use system especially at natural resource conservation front (Singh, 1999). Pathak (2000) opined that agroforestry is a land management system that optimizes the overall land productivity and reduces resources depletion through the utilization of positive interactions between crops-trees-animals in its temporal and spatial dimensions. In this way, agroforestry operates in a given socioeconomic frame work; it is not a static but a dynamic structure.

ABSTRACT

Maharashtra ranks second in terms of area under tree cover, however, still large chunk of land is lying without use or are underutilised because of their degradation status. Such degraded lands can be put to use through agroforestry. Agroforestry is being adopted in this state in one way or the other by raising trees on farm bunds, around cattle sheds etc. since earlier times. New innovative technology has now been developed by all the agricultural universities of state. The paper provides detailed information of different agroforestry systems which have been developed and practised in the state.

INTRODUCTION

Maharashtra is the third largest state of India having the geographical area of 307,713 km², which constitute 9.4 per cent of the country’s geographical area. The human population of the state is 96.75 million (9.4% of country’s population) of which 57.6 per cent is rural and 42.4 per cent is urban. The average population density is 314 persons per km². The tribal population is 9.3 per cent of the state population. The state supports livestock population of 36.4 million, which is 7.7 per cent of the country’s livestock population. The state rank second amongst all the state/UTs in terms of area under tree cover and third in term of recorded Forest Area (Anon, 2001).

ABSTRACT

Bihar is a state whose economy is solely dependent on agriculture. Though it has deep fertile land of alluvial origin, still agriculture of this state is facing problems due to frequent flooding. Population pressure on forest had led to creation of large extent of degraded lands. Agroforestry seems to be one of the viable option to avert these adverse conditions. Traditionally people used to integrate trees in farm lands in different forms. However, green revolution reduced these practices. The present paper provides a detailed account of prevalent agroforestry practices in Bihar. Results of different agroforestry systems which had been researched under AICRP on Agroforestry in Bihar since 1987 are also given in this paper.

INTRODUCTION

Bihar, the twelth largest state of India is bound on the north by Nepal, south by Jharkhand, east by West Bengal and on the west by Uttar Pradesh. The state lies between 24° 20’10″ to 27° 31’15″ N latitude and between 83° 19’50" to 88° 17’40"E longitude at an elevation of 53.12 m above the mean sea level and comprises an area of 93595.68 sq.km. The topography of Bihar is practically plain. The whole of the Bihar plain is traversed by a number of fairly large rivers, viz., Ganga, Ghagra, Kosi, Bagmati, Burhi Gandak, Kamla balan etc. which cause intermittent floods and engulf several districts of Bihar each year.

ABSTRACT

The paper gives a comprehensive detail of the state with regards to its inception, socio-economic, climatic and edaphic conditions. In addition states agroclimatic zones along with their characteristics have been described in the paper. Extent of agriculture crops, horticulture, animal husbandry, fisheries and forestry along with their production and contribution to national pool is provided elaborately. Details of agroforestry systems like silvipastoral and agrisilvipastoral for land with very high erosion and hortisilviculture and hortiagrisilviculture, aquaforestry, entomoforestry recommended for land with moderate to low erosion had been explained in details. Significant results obtained in agroforestry research under AICRP on Agroforestry and Horticulture and Agroforestry Research program have also been presented in this paper. Finally some tips to make agroforestry successful and future strategies have been given.

INTRODUCTION

Jharkhand state evolved as 28^th State on 15^th November 2000 from the southern part of Bihar, with a total area of 79.5 lakh ha and population density of 274/Km² consisting of 28 per cent schedule tribes and 12 per cent schedule caste population. A total of 29.61 per cent of the geographical area of the state consists of forest area with 28.4 per cent actual forest cover (Annon., 2001). Most of the forest area of the state consists of mines, which do not allow any agriculture. The continued large-scale mining operations of Coal and Iron ore are generating serious threats for the area coming under down streams. The areas lying under sharp undulating topography are under threats of soil erosion, which in turn affect the low lying water body’s carrying capacity i.e. due to continuous siltation, all such anomalies emphasizes the need to improve the water and land use efficiency in order to ensure better storage and retention of the rain water, for improving the productivity of the land.

ABSTRACT

West Bengal is the gateway to North-East and has diverse vegetation and social strata. The paper presents the agroclimatic zones of the state along with their characteristic features. The scenario with regard to agriculture, forest cover and livestock shows that practicing agroforestry is the need of the state. For the sake of convenience the state has been divided into two parts: south Bengal and north Bengal. In the tribal dominated parts of the state home gardens are prevalent. Possible interventions in the present land use along with strategies to increase tree cover under agroforestry has also been discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Cultivation of tree species and agricultural crops in intimate combination had been a practice through out the world at one period or another. Trees were integral and important component of the farming system. However, in the middle ages the concept changed and agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry were separated under a monoculture management system. This in long run led to an incredible reduction in forest cover and ecological imbalance. Scientists and managers once again began to think about changing the land use system and integrating trees with agriculture crops (Panwar et al., 2004). In India, research work on agroforestry was initiated during the late 1970’s by Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi; Central Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Institute, Dehradun; Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur and ICAR Research Complexes in isolation. National commission on agriculture also emphasized starting of agroforestry education in all agriculture university. The formal research activities related to agroforestry started in a big way with the initiation of All India Coordinated Research Project on Agroforestry (AICRPAF) from 7^th Feb., 1983 with 20 centers, of which 12 were in State Agricultural Universities and rest in ICAR Institutes. Later more centers were added. The major emphasis was to have research centers in all the major ecological zones of India. In this venture in the first phase AICRPAF was initiated in West Bengal at Jhargram, Distt. Midnapore under the auspices of the then only Agricultural University in West Bengal - Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur representing Humid and Subhumid zone of West Bengal.

ABSTRACT

Orissa is traditionally an agrarian state. It is endowed with vast natural resources, diversified agro-edaphic conditions,rich flora and fauna, wide range of land holdings, various socio-cultural groups and people with multiple economic strata. These factors have led to evolve a variety of agroforestry systems and practices. The traditional agroforestry systems which are prevailing in the state since time immemorial are broadly agrisilvicultural, silvipastoral and agrisilvipastoral systems. The prominent agrisilvicultural systems include podu/jhum cultivation, multipurpose trees on farm lands, multiple species tree gardens and agroforestry for fuel wood production. The important silvipastoral systems are trees on pasture, fodder trees and shrubs on forest land and live fence of fodder trees and shrubs. The very old agrihortisilvicultural system prevailing in the state is homegarden. Interventions of Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology and various Government and Non-Government agencies have resulted in the development of some improved agroforestry practices in recent years. Some of the improved agroforestry practices are Acacia mangium based agrisilvicultural practices, Guava based agrisilvicultural practices, coconut based agroforestry practices, Eucalyptus (Clonal) based agrisilvicultural practices, windbreaks, timber tree based agrisilvicultural practices, Sesbania grandiflora based agrisilvicultural practice, Acacia mangium based silvipastoral system, mangium-guava based silvipastoral practices, improved homegardens, commercial block plantations on farmlands and apisilvicultural practice.

ABSTRACT

Assam has been divided into six agroclimatic zones on the basis of soil, climate, terrain and vegetation. It comprises of Brahmaputra plain zone to Hill zone. The paper deals with the traditional agroforestry systems prevailing in all these agroclimatic zones along with the research activities which are going on in Assam. Salient research achievements with respect to tree-crop compatibility are given at the end of the chapter. Impact of agroforestry research on farmers of Assam in terms of adoption is also given.

INTRODUCTION

Assam, one of the eastern states of India, lies between 240 N and 28018’ N latitudes and 8904’ E and 960 E longitudes. The state is surrounded by Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh in the north, Nagaland, Manipur and a part of Arunachal Pradesh in the east, Mizoram, Tripura and Meghalaya in the south and West Bengal in the west. The state is endowed with abundant fertile land and water sources with a total geographical area of 78,523 km² with population density of 318 per square kilometer.

ABSTRACT

In the state of Meghalaya, forests are being degraded by age-old practice of shifting agriculture by native tribes and other human activities. Agroforestry has a great potential both from the point of view of restoration and maintenance of soil fertility and to increase agriculture production. The traditional system of agriculture in the state is primitive, labour intensive and dependent on rainfall. The proportion of space occupied by the tree and crop components in the traditional system largely depends upon factors like soil types, plant species and crop arrangements. The common traditional systems practiced in the state may be grouped under agrisilviculture, agrihorticulture, silvihorticulture, pastoralsilviculture and pastoralhorticulture. Agroforestry systems can play an important role in soil conservation and improvement in moisture and nutrient levels through efficient cycling of nutrients, which in turn would enhance agriculture production. The analysis of different agroforestry systems in the state of Meghalaya suggests that further improvement of the existing systems may yield high productivity and make them more sustainable.

INTRODUCTION

Agroforestry is an ideal scientific approach to tackle the problems of degraded lands and to bring about eco-restoration and maintenance of soil resources. The significance of tree based land use systems in general and agroforestry in particular, has been realized in improving the economy of farmers having small land holdings (Chauhan and Dhyani 1990, Beer et al 1990, Fisher 1990, Dhyani and Tripathi 1999). The fertility of soils can be improved under the influence of tree cover, which checks erosion, contributes to accumulation of organic matter content, adds nitrogen through symbiotic N-fixation by leguminous or actinorrhizal trees and continuously replenishes the nutrients through effective recycling mechanisms. It offers a practical means of achieving greater outputs and at the same time maintains soil fertility that ultimately helps in increasing productivity of agricultural crops and trees.

ABSTRACT

Mizoram is predominantly a hilly state where people have been practicing agroforestry in a variety of forms from traditional shifting (jhum) cultivation to the most scientific-induced agroforestry models. However, ‘jhum’ still remains the main form of land use even though it is known to cause severe soil, water and biodiversity erosion and low crop productivity. The induced agroforestry practices carried out in Miozram have the ability to replace shifting cultivation but these systems again are not properly designed to tackle various biophysical, socio-cultural and economic need of the people, resulting in their poor acceptability. The paper reviews various agroforestry systems prevailing in Mizoram and details some ongoing agroforestry research trials in the State.

ABSTRACT

Arunachal Pradesh, the largest state of North-East India is unique state of the country in the sense that its altitude range between 70 – 7000 m, have 26 major tribes besides 110 sub-tribes, have 82 per cent of its land under forest and most of the area is under the control of local tribes which practice shifting cultivation. The paper presents the potentialities of agroforestry in Arunachal Pradesh. The different agroforestry systems prevailing in the state are also given in detail. Agroforestry systems which are scientifically tested and the direction in which research are to be done in future to extend agroforestry has also been presented.

INTRODUCTION

Indian Eastern Himalaya, covers the states of Assam, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura and Meghalaya (Kukreti, 2000). The erstwhile North East Frontier Agency, now Arunachal Pradesh, the largest state among the North-eastern states of India lies at latitude 26°28’-29°30 N and longitude 91°30’- 97°30 E with a geographical area of 83,743 km². The human population of the state is 10,91,113 (GOI, 2002). The recorded forest area in the state is 68602 km² which is 82.0 per cent of the geographical area of Arunachal Pradesh (Kukreti, 2000). The forest cover in the state forms the highest amongst all the states of the country and state is least densely populated. The state is bounded by Bhutan to the west, Myanmar to the east, China to the north and north east, and the plains of Assam to the south. There are 26 major tribes and 110 sub tribes which inhabit different parts of the state, with a life style totally dependent on the forest resources. Moreover, almost all the major tribes and sub tribes has been practicing shifting cultivation from the ancient time in this region which is integral part of sociocultural life of the tribal people.

ABSTRACT

Homegardens are traditional agroforestry systems present throughout the northeast India especially in foothill region. The high diversity and the intensive care that is given to the homegarden in and around Arunachal Pradesh results in a unique combination of high levels of productivity, stability and sustainability of the system. The homegardens studied here were vertically distributed in four different layers viz, floor, middle, sub-canopy and canopy. Such stratification has given rise to the distribution of a variety of species based on light requirement in the system. Density and diversity index of tree species in the homegardens were highest in Harmutty in the foothills (468.5 plants ha^-1 and 1.17 respectively), whereas lower values were recorded in Ziro in the upper elevation (16 plants ha^-1, 0.651 respectively). Soil nutrients were greater in Harmutty, followed by Doimukh, Nirjuli and then Ziro. Maximum plant detrital (litter and fine roots) biomass and their subsequent decomposition in the homegardens of Harmutty (10185.67 kg ha^-1) might be the probable reason for the efficient nutrient cycling and generation of more available nutrients.

ABSTRACT

Homegarden is a least studied agroecosystem of the world. Present study, conducted in 430 homegardens before Tsunami in five island groups namely North Andaman, Middle Andaman, South Andaman, Car Nicobar and Noncowry (former three, Andaman group and later two, Nicobar group of islands), India, reports composition, species structure and its distribution and functioning of the system. The homegarden is comprised of 6 components i.e., garden, livestock, poultry, fishpond, homesteads, and rice fields. Coconut and arecanut trees predominate in the garden. Fruits, spices and agroforestry trees are other ligneous species, which together with the former trees form multistorey canopy structure. But, composition and dominance of the tree species vary across the islands. Arecanut to coconut ratio is greatest invariably in all the homegardens in the Andaman. Family members do maximum 70 per cent labour in the homegarden and consume 35-65 per cent fruits, poultry, livestock and fishpond products, however, surplus is sold. Free range grazing in nearby protected forests is an age old practice of animal feeding whereas poultry birds are fed among the garden trees and household refuge. Livestock includes cattle, buffaloes and goats in Andaman and pig and goat in Nicobar. Cattle are used for milk, he buffaloes as a draft animal and pig and goat for meat. Cattle, mostly local breed, yield a little amount of milk, an average, 1 liter cow-1. Plantation crops production is low: coconut 18-30 nuts palm^-1 and arecanut 0.75 kg palm^-1. The homegardens serve the subsistence as well as earn income, but low (US$ 2357) to the house. In Nicobar, Nicobarese huts interspersed in a big natural coconut plantation form the homegarden. Tribe Nicobarese do not know crop husbandry, rather they pursue round the year sea fishing and pig rearing. They relish most pork, unripe boiled wild banana, Nicobari tuber, fruits and seeds of Pendanus and fried fish.

ABSTRACT

Andhra Pradesh is predominently an agrarian state, where 70 per cent of the people live in rural areas. Andhra Pradesh has 7 Agroecological zones spread over in coastal Andhra, Telangana and Rayalaseema regions with varied climatic situations. The existing agroforestry systems in costal Andhra are Mango-based Agrihorticulture system, Betelvine-sesbania system, Borrasus flabellefer, Glyrecidia boundary plantations, Eucalyptus, Causarina and Subabul block plantations. Besides Neem, Tamarind and jamuns are also found in isolated manner. In Telangana region, Custard apple based Agrihorticulture system, Mango based Agrihorticulture system, Boundary plantations of Neem, teak, Jamun etc., are present. Eucalyptus based Agrisilviculture system is propagated by ITC, Bhadrachalam in Khammam and elsewhere in the state. In Rayalaseema region in all the districts tamarind, mango and sweet orange based agroforestry systems are prominently seen. The betelvine - sesbania system alone is fetching an income of 100 crores/year to the states’ exchequer. The common trees and tree systems available in the state are : Azadirachta indica, Tamarindus indica, Acacia nilotica, Pithecellobium dulce, Parkinsonia aculeata, Pterocarpus santalinus, Dalbergia latifolia and many others.