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“It is unbelievable that such a tiny streamlet, as was our initial test trial with the first bacterial starters exactly 40 years ago, grew to a big river for an important industry. Who would have believed then that the use of starter cultures would be a matter of course today” (Niinivaara, 1994). The idea of inoculating Lactobacillus into dry sausage material was introduced by Jensen and Paddock in 1940(US Patent 2,225,783) with the aim to reduce the ripening time as well as ensuring the quality and aroma of dry sausages. The first LAB meat starter culture, introduced as a pure culture of Pediococcus cerevisiae, was developed in 1955 in the USA by Niven et al. (1955). At the same time, Niinivaara (1955) applied Micrococcus M53 to dry sausage production in Europe. The work of Niinivaara was continued byNurmi (1966) who combined micrococci with Lactobacillus plantarum. Today, several companies provide Lactobacillus sp., Pediococcus acidilactici, P. pentosaceus, Staphylococcus xylosus or S. carnosus strains in pure cultures or their mixtures for fermentation of meat (Hammes et al. 1985). A starter culture may be defined as a preparation or material containing large numbers of variable microorganisms, which may be added to accelerate a fermentation process. Being adapted to the substrate, a typical starter facilitates improved control of a fermentation process and predictability of its products (Holzapfel, 1997).

Bioenergetics is a branch of Biochemistry that focuses on the study of energy transformation and utilization in living organisms. It primarily deals with how cells capture, store, and utilize energy to drive various biological processes essential for sustaining life. The flow of energy in biological systems operates in accordance with the principles of thermodynamics, which govern the conversion of energy from one form to another. In living cells, energy is typically obtained through biochemical reactions involving the breakdown of organic compounds such as carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. This energy is then utilized for various physiological processes like the synthesis of biomolecules, active transport of ions, muscle contraction, and nerve conduction, enabling the cell to maintain its structural and functional integrity. Thermodynamics, a branch of physical chemistry, plays a crucial role in bioenergetics as it explains the changes in energy associated with biochemical reactions. In biochemical thermodynamics, also referred to as bioenergetics, the primary focus is on how energy released from one reaction can be utilized to drive another reaction that requires energy input. This is achieved through

Air or atmosphere constitutes one of the integral components of the environment. Among all the environmental components, the air has the highest fluidity. Therefore, the entry of a foreign substance into the air imparts a quick and severe effect on the health of the organisms. Air in the biosphere has a mixture of various gases in a dynamic proportion which is conducive to maintaining the health and sustenance of all living organisms. An alteration in the composition of the atmosphere beyond a certain limit adversely affects organisms’ health, and might even be of more serious consequences for life.

Air pollution, thus, is defined as the occurrence of undesirable gases (e.g., carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, etc.) or particles (e.g., suspended particulate matter) in such concentrations that are deleterious to terrestrial life (vegetation, animals, and human beings) and some physical assets, like buildings, statues, and monuments. Air pollution especially affects the health of human beings living in highly modified (anthropogenic) ecosystems, e.g., cities and industrial areas.

Biopesticides are pesticides that are produced naturally by plants, animals, microbes, and other minerals. These represent less of a harm to humans and the environment than chemical insecticides. Nanotechnology is a rapidly developing scientific topic that has numerous uses in numerous industries, including agriculture. The transport of plant hormones, seed germination, water management, transfer of target genes, nano barcoding, nano sensors, and controlled release of agrichemicals are now being investigated as applications for nanotechnology in agriculture (Worrall et al. 2018).

India has been a welfare country since Independence and the primary objective of all governmental and non-governmental endeavors has been the welfare of its millions people. The policies and programmes should be designed with the aim of alleviation of rural poverty which has been one of the primary objectives of planned development in India. It was realized from pre-independent rural development efforts, that a sustainable strategy of poverty alleviation must be based on increasing the productive employment opportunities in the process of growth itself. Elimination of poverty, ignorance, diseases and inequality of opportunities and providing a better and higher quality of life were the basic premises upon which all the plans and blue-prints of development should built.

Rural development implies both the economic betterment of people as well as greater social transformation. In order to provide the rural people with better prospects for economic development, increased participation of people in the rural development programmes, decentralization of planning, better enforcement of land reforms, greater access to credit, etc proper planning is envisaged.

Initially, main thrust for development was laid on agriculture industry, communication, education, health and allied sectors but later on it was realized that accelerated development can be achieved only if governmental efforts are adequately supplemented with direct and indirect involvement of people at the grass root level.

Summary

RNA interference has revolutionized the concepts in regulation of gene expression. RNA interference is the mechanism that controls sequence specific gene silencing by double stranded RNA. These non-coding RNAs are gene specific regulators critical in the transformation of normal cells to a malignant stage. Alterations in the non-coding RNAs have been linked to specific cancers and can serve as diagnostic markers. The ability of exogenously introduced siRNAs to specifically bind its complementary mRNA and down regulate its expression has various applications. It has markedly influenced the way the role of certain genes is investigated in tumorigenesis. The siRNA technology has been effectively functional in identification of new components and blocking the expression of critical mediators in tumorigenesis.

Introduction

Oils and fats are the major class of compounds in lipids. Oils and fats are essential nutrients in both human and animal diets and produced from plant, animal, marine and microbial sources. Dietary oils and fats are concentrated sources of metabolizable energy (9 kCal/gram) compared to protein or carbohydrates (4 kCal/g). According to the recommendations of Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, the maximum total fat intake for adults is 30 to 35% E (total energy calories). The minimum fat intake recommended is 15% E for most individuals and 20% E for women of reproductive age and for malnourished populations (FAO, 2010).The current dietary guidelines for optimal health and prevention of diet-related chronic diseases like diabetes, coronary heart disease (CHD), cancer and obesity emphasize the importance of both the quantity and quality of total fat in the diet. In addition to the caloric and nutritional value, oils and fats exhibit many functional properties in the diet. Oils and fats enhance the value of foods by releasing the flavours of other food components, provide texture, increase palatability of food, and impart the feeling of satiety after eating. Oils and fats provide essential fatty acids (omega 3 and 6) which are the building blocks for several metabolic pathways for the healthy life. Oils and fats are excellent carriers of fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E and K, and the absorption of these vitamins is impaired at very low-fat intakes. Due to this reason, sseveral countries have started using edible oils and fats as a suitable vehicle for the fortification of vitamin A and D as edible oils are consumed by almost everyone (Diosady and Krishnaswamy, 2018). Oils and fats are structural bodily components, and are involved in vital physiological processes, including growth, development, inflammation, and brain function. Lipoproteins are important cellular constituents, occurring both in the cell membrane and mitochondria, and also serving as the means of transporting lipids in the blood. Oils and fats are responsible for making biological membranes such as phospholipids and cholesterol, vital for making the cell membranes. Most of the edible oils contain several minor constituents which are known as potent nutraceutical constituents with several health benefits. In addition to edible purpose, oils and fats are being used in many industrial applications such as soaps, detergents, cosmetics, lubricants, specialty chemicals, biofuels, etc. Hence oils and fats are indispensable source for food (edible oils and nutraceuticals), fuel (biodiesel, lubricants etc.) and fabulous chemicals (oleochemicals).

2.1 Definition and Boundaries of Watershed Areas

Concept of Watershed Boundaries

The concept of watershed boundaries is fundamental to understanding the hydrological and ecological dynamics of a given landscape. Watershed boundaries, also known as drainage divides or catchment areas, delineate the geographical extent of a watershed, which is an area of land where all the water drains to a common outlet, such as a stream, river, lake, or ocean. Watershed boundaries represent the natural hydrological and ecological units of a landscape, reflecting the interconnectedness of water resources and ecosystems. Understanding the factors influencing their definition is essential for effective watershed management, resource planning, and environmental conservation. Exploring the delineation of watershed boundaries involves considering various factors that influence their definition:

a. Topography: Topography, particularly the elevation and slope of the land, plays a significant role in defining watershed boundaries. Watershed boundaries typically follow ridgelines or high points in the landscape, where water flows in different directions, ultimately converging into distinct drainage networks.

b. Hydrology: Hydrological characteristics, such as precipitation patterns, surface runoff, and groundwater flow, influence the delineation of watershed boundaries. Areas with higher rainfall or snowmelt may have larger watersheds with more extensive drainage areas, while areas with low precipitation may have smaller, more localized watersheds.

Water Resources: Classifications of water: Groundwater, surface water and Virtual Water; Conjunctive use of water in agriculture; Water resources in different states and Stakeholders of water use.
Introduction
Despite fact that more than two-third of the earth’s surface is covered with water, currently, near about 450 million people in 29 countries are facing severe water shortage and at least 20 percent more water would be required to feed additional 3 billion populations by 2025. About 97.5 percent of ocean-sea water is not available due to its salinity and 2.49 percent is locked up in ice and only 0.01 percent is technologically available and economically accessible water either from surface or ground water sources for human uses. So water saving technologies developed so far is very pertinent to propagate amongst the users. Water is an essential natural resource for sustaining the environment and supporting life where the agriculture is the major user of water resource. Water is an indispensable for sustainable agricultural growth and development. Previously, rainfed agriculture was associated primarily with conservational land treatments to check soil erosion and land degradation.But in the areas of medium to heavy rainfall, there is ample scope of tapping excess rain water through suitable water harvesting structures constructed for this purpose for its subsequent uses as irrigation or to apply lifesaving irrigation to the crops which should also come under the purview of water management for crop production. Although there is a difference in the objectives of water management where there is abundant availability of water from continuous flow connected with perennial sources or lakes and rivers and that of from restricted or limited supply from collection of excess rain through water harvesting structures.The former is associated with to obtain as much as yield of crop per unit area under water application and later is associated with increasing productivityof crop per unit of water application even under rainwater recycling and its effective management for the purpose of irrigation. Hence, both the rainwater and irrigation water are considered to be equally important to context of

Introduction

In man’s continued effort to enhance food production, new high yielding crop varieties and new techniques for crop and field management are being constantly evolved resulting in a parallel increase in disease occurrence which calls for their efficient management. Of the various management strategies available for disease management, the chemical strategies have so far dominated our thinking. Over emphasis on chemical control of plant diseases has caused serious imbalances in the agro-ecosystem^1-2.

The shift to exploration of non-chemical strategies is likely to correct the imbalance in our approach and subsequently improve the understanding of Integrated Disease Management (IDM). IDM is defined as ‘a disease management system that utilizes all suitable techniques in a compatible manner to reduce and maintain pest pathogen population at levels below those causing economic injury.’ Fungi are the important group of pathogens.

In continuation of our work on natural pest management agents the present investigation aims at the preparation of different types of aqueous extracts of locally available four Indian medicinal plants viz., Datura stramonium Linn (Datura), Ricinus communis Linn. (Castor), Vitex trifolia Linn. (Nirgudi) and Nerium indicum Mill. (Kanher); study of stability of these extracts at room temperature; and evaluation of their anti-fungal potencies. This study will help to preserve and increase the pest management potency and efficacy of natural products.

Pineapple is a tropical plant with edible multiple fruit consisting of coalesced berries. It is named after pine cone due its resemblance with its structure. It is the most economically important plant in the family of Bromeliaceae. It is widely grown throughout the world for its dual-purpose use in the form of fresh fruit and many processed products. It is a tropical fruit having excellent taste, juiciness, aroma and flavour which is preferred by many people. It is also rich source of fibre, potassium and vitamin C, vitamin B1 and vitamin B6. One of the important constituents in the fruit is proteolytic enzyme bromelein which is known to have significant use in treating conditions like inflammation, sinusitis, arthritis and early recovery from surgery (Joy, 2010). Bromelein is a digestive enzyme also used as meat tenderizer. Pineapple is cultivated in an area of 106.22 thousand ha and total production is 1,527.93 thousand tons (APEDA). Major producing states of pineapple were West Bengal, Assam and Karnataka. Pineapple is highly perishable fruit which transpires heavily and lose moisture thus have high susceptibility to spoilage microorganism (Hossain and Bepary, 2015). There are often several difficulties in production of pineapple with its physiologically active state even after harvest and non climacteric nature. Even though production is more, there are enormous post harvest losses for the fruit. The overall losses being encountered constitute 32.12 percent (6.82% at farm level, 3.09% at wholesale market and transportation, 5.44 % at retail market level, 5.64% during storage, 4.31% in processing unit and 6.82% at consumer level respectively) as reported by Ningobam, (2019).

One of the major constraints in the efforts to modernize and efficient restructuring of the animal husbandry practices is the delay in taking the results of research to the farming community and in persuading them to adopt new, profitable and locally relevant technologies. The very need of the extension work is to bridge the gap between what is known to the scientists in the laboratories and what is actually being practiced by the farmers in the field. In other words, the major goal of extension machinery is to accelerate the processes of communication and to motivate rural people or livestock owners for adoption of new and profitable technologies. Hence, it is very important to understand these processes of how the farmers get such technologies and how they adopt them.

Communication

The term communication is originated from the Latin word ‘Communis’, meaning common or establishing commoness. When we communicate, we attempt to establish ‘commonality’ with someone through the message.

Communication is the process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings or impressions in ways that each gains a common understanding of the meaning, intent and use of the message (Paul Leagens, 1961).

International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) now known as International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) uses the following items in genetic resources documentation. 
    i)    Passport (accession identifiers and information recorded by collectors) 
    ii)    Characterization (consists of recording those characters which are highly heritable, can be easily seen by the eye and are expressed in all environments) 
    iii)    Preliminary evaluation (consists of recording a limited number of additional traits thought to be desirable by a consensus) of users of the particular crop
Characterization and preliminary evaluation will be the responsibility of the curators while further characterization and evaluation should be carried out by the plant breeders. The data from further evaluation should be fed to the curators who will maintain a data file.

INTRODUCTION

The ber or Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) in the most common fruit crop grown in arid and irrigated zones of Indian sub-continent. It is one of ancient fruits of India which is cultivated practically all over the country for its fresh consumption. Ber is a tropical as well as subtropical fruit and can be successfully cultivated even in the most marginal eco-system of tropics and subtropics. Ber is a hardy fruit tree and is best known for growing under adverse soil and climatic conditions. It can thrive well even in drought, water-logged and salinity conditions. It is common notion among the people that ber is a poor man’s fruit. It is one of the most nutritious fruit compared to other ones. The grafted varieties of ber fetch even higher price in the market than several other fruits. Hence, ber stands no longer the poor man’s fruit. Now, ber growing has received a great attention and preferred as a commercial fruit crop in North Indian states like Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh on account of its potential for higher yield and good economic return to the growers. Moreover, the tree has less water need in the summer months during the period of dormancy, thus considered an ideal fruit for cultivation in the arid and semi-arid regions of North India. Apart from ber, no other fruit trees grow wild so extensively in this region, thus it is becoming popular among the growers.

The pigments are energy-rich organic compounds. The potential chemical energy of these compounds comes from the light energy. The light enrgy to be effective in photosynthesis must be absorbed by a suitable pigment. This vital role is performed by a suitable pigment. This vital role is performed by the green pigment. Chlorophyll, carotenoid (carotenes and xanthophylls), anthocynin and phycibilins.

Imagine the air around us. Even though we can’t see it, air has weight. Atmospheric pressure is essentially the force exerted by the weight of the air molecules above a particular point on the Earth’s surface. Think of it like this: Imagine you’re at the bottom of a swimming pool. The water above you presses down, and you feel that pressure. Similarly, the atmosphere, a giant ocean of air, has layers of air molecules, and their weight presses down on everything below, including us.
• Definition: Atmospheric pressure is defined as the force per unit area exerted by the weight of the air column extending from the surface of the earth to the top of the atmosphere above that area (Fig.8.1).
• How to Explain It Simply
• Air has weight: Just like water or a pile of books, the air surrounding the Earth has mass, and thus, weight due to gravity.
• Weight creates pressure: This weight of the air presses down on the surface. The more air there is above a certain point, the greater the pressure.
• Like a stack: Imagine a stack of blankets. The blanket at the bottom has to support the weight of all the blankets above it, so it experiences more pressure. Similarly, the air at lower altitudes has the weight of all the air above pressing down on it.

Introduction

Fruits and vegetables (F&V) are good sources of phytochemicals like carotenoids, phenolics, dietary fibers, minerals and vitamins and are considered as important components of a healthy diet. These bioactive compounds in fresh F&V have been linked to delay in onset of many diseases including cardiovascular, chronic and other non-communicable diseases. WHO reported an approximate 3.9 million deaths all over the world in 2017 due to insufficient consumption of F&V (WHO, 2019). Hence, health advisors and nutritionists recommend inclusion of fresh fruits and vegetables to complement the daily diet, and WHO recommends the consumption of a minimum of 400g F&V daily in five portions. However, beneficial raw F&V may contain pathogenic microorganisms, such as Salmonella, E. coli, and Listeria that can pose threat to consumer safety. Since fruits and some of the vegetables are eaten raw, there are chances that pathogenic microorganisms may also enter food chain. Nearly a half of food borne illnesses in United States are caused by microbes on fresh produce (CDC, 2019). The F&V are handled by producers, dealers, wholesalers, retailers and several intermediaries, and therefore, are at greater risk of possible contamination till it reaches the consumer.

The ever increasing demand for F&V has led to overexploitation of pesticides usage in the farms, leading to harmful pesticide residues in air, soil, water and on the F&V surfaces. Thus, it is imperative to maintain the quality and safety of F&V all through the supply chain. In this chapter, we discuss various pre and postharvest factors affecting the quality and safety of F&V, storage techniques to extend shelf life and reduce the safety threat as well as methods available for microbial and pesticide decontamination of fresh F&V.

Abstract

The rhizomicrobiome plays a vital role in maintaining plant health and is highly influenced by the root exudates of the host plant. Plants select a subset of microbes at different stages of their development, and determine the microbiome community composition in its immediate vicinity presumably for specific functions. The rhizomicrobiome is composed of diversified microbial community with specific functions and is highly influenced by the plant type, soil type and environmental conditions. The rhizomicrobiome communities apart from promoting plant growth also elicit induced systemic tolerance to salinity and drought in stressed plants. Bacterial communities producing 1-aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylate (ACC) deaminase modulate stress ethylene in plants and alleviate the effects of abiotic stress and increases plant adaptability to stressed environment.

The domestication of oxen in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley Civilization, perhaps as early as the 6th millennium B.C. provided mankind with the draft power necessary to develop the early plough into the larger, animal-drawn true ard (or scratch plough). Some of the earliest evidence of ploughing from around 2800 B.C.was found at the Indus Valley site of Kalibangan. Subsequent archaeological finds in Prague, Czech Republic, push the oldest known ploughed field even further back to 3500-3800 B.C. All food produce was planted and harvested by hand: seeds were scattered by hand and planted grains were brought from the field to be threshed on the dooryard. Milking a small herd of cows or goats was also done by hand. This continued for centuries. Then man discovered electricity.

In 1746, just a few years before Benjamin Franklin of Philadelphia sent a kite to catch lightning in a storm, a Doctor von Maimbray gave talk to the Royal Society of London where he described his experiment of electrifying the myrtle bush (Morella cerifera) which then put forth new branches in October, something which had never happened before. This news inspired others in Europe to carry out similar experiments. In 1749, Abbot Jean Antoine Nollet of the Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris France, inventor of the electroscope, published a pamphlet on “The Harmful Effects or Advantageous of Electrical Phenomena on Plants.”¹Isolated experiments continued until in 1783 Father Pierre Bertholon de Saint-Lazare of Montpellier published “About the Electricity of Plants”, a work in which he dealt with the effect of atmospheric electricity on plants, taking in their medicinal and nutritive-electrical virtues and but in particular the practical means of applying it usefully to agriculture.²He even built an electro-vegetometer, a device for collecting atmospheric electricity to distribute it in the soil and then to the plants, but he met with little success. Bertholon also conceived of subjecting plants to “electric rain” by connecting a large syringe to an electric source. A gardener, standing on a slab of insulating material in a wagon, carried a sprinkling can electrified by means of a wire leading to a static machine. “By means of this process, strange for the times, the good Abbé Bertholon, who was considered something of a sorcerer, obtained lettuces of an extraordinary size.”3

Introduction

Overview of the Chapter’s Focus on Agroecology and Soil Sustainability

The ecology and biodiversity of our globe are being threatened by human activity, notably unsustainable agriculture methods. This chapter explores the vital function of agroecology, the intersection of ecological and agricultural concepts, in promoting sustainable farming systems. Soil sustainability, essential for effective and resilient agrarian operations, is critical to this strategy. Here, we give an overview of these key terms and talk about the pressing need to switch to sustainable agriculture methods to preserve the  health of the soil, increase food security, and create adaptable environments.