eChapters

ABSTRACT

Agroforestry a sustainable land use system being practiced since long back through out the country. A diverse climatic, edaphic, and environmental conditions prevailing in the country has made it possible to practice different kinds of agroforestry systems. The local research organizations and individuals have undertook various studies for the betterment of the local agroforestry systems for getting higher yields to meet the need of food, fodder, fuel wood etc. It was found that Jowar+Teak+Papaya followed by Chilli+Teak+Papaya combination gave more economic returns compared to pure agricultural crop. Casuarina equisetifolia, Grevillea robusta, Dalbergia sissoo and Melia dubia have been found to be suitable for agroforestry systems in dryland. Coffee based agroforestry system and other tree-crop combination tried have been elaborated in this paper.

INTRODUCTION

Agroforestry is a new word for the old practice of growing woody plants with agricultural crops and/or livestock together on the same land. Various experts and scientists working on agroforestry or involved in land use related sciences have defined agroforestry according to their individual understanding of what they call agroforestry.

“Agroforestry is sustainable management system for land that increases total production, combines agricultural crops, tree crops and forest plants and or animals simultaneously or sequentially and applies management practices that are compatible with the cultural patterns of the local population” (Chundawat and Gautham, 1993).

ABSTRACT

Agroecologically the state is divided into 13 zones based on altitudinal variations, precipitation pattern, soil type and topographic features. Land use systems that integrate woody perennials with other life forms abound in all these zones, along with a great diversity of trees and field crops. Although these practices are apparently specific to the topographic and edaphic factors, a complex pattern of overlapping which transgresses over a wide range of agroecological zones is obvious. An attempt is made to describe the important agroforestry systems of Kerala, both traditional as well as those potentially suitable.

INTRODUCTION

The state of Kerala with many woody perennial-based land use practices is often regarded as the “Mecca” of agroforestry. Most of these are, however, traditional systems evolved over centuries of cultural and biological transformations and may represent the accrued wisdom and insights of farmers who have interacted with environment, without access to exogenous inputs, capital or scientific skills. Over long periods in the history of land use in these highly populated humid tropical lands, such diverse land use systems have apparently remained as engines of food security, besides sourcing multiple products and services including certain intangible benefits (e.g., microclimatic modification, soil and water conservation); thus providing the rationale for the co-existence of an array of pluralistic land use orders often in close juxtaposition with one another. Yet another plausible explanation for the occurrence of many diverse woody perennial-based systems and practices over a relatively small geographical range is perhaps the brute heterogeneity of the Kerala landscape.

ABSTRACT

Tamil Nadu, the southern most state of India has 8 per cent of the country’s population and its net sown area is only 4-5 per cent of the country’s area. The state is endowed with varied physiography from hills to coastal lands and hence varied agroclimatic and edaphic conditions. This paper details the characteristics of different agroclimate and provides varied perennial and annual components being practiced in different combinations in these agroforestry systems.

INTRODUCTION

Land is a major non renewable natural resource. With the increase in population, the demand of land for all activities increases. The requirement of food, fibre, fodder and fuel of the ever increasing population has to be met with the finite land resources. In India, the pattern of land use in agriculture and forestry took a drastic turn during the period from fifties to eighties. Conservation, development and management of the available land is basic for ensuring food, ecological, environmental and economic security of our country. Tamil Nadu’s population is around 8 per cent of the total country and the net sown area is only a meager 4-5 per cent of that of the country. With the ever increasing population and expanding industrialization, steps need to be taken to utilize the land to the optimum extent possible and to identify and utilize lands effectively and efficiently in order to make full use of their maximum capability.

ABSTRACT

Modelling has been used in natural sciences since centuries in one-way or the other. However, system modelling as a discipline in itself is established in the recent years. Agroforestry modelling is a complex process that essentially involves at least two elements viz. tree and crop, where tree is the long term and crop is the short-term component. Agroforestry models, usually, predict tree growth and yield and the reduction/enhancement in crop yield as influenced by the tree component in temporal and spatial sequence. In this paper the need of modeling, stages of model development, its validation and classification of models are given. The models, which are relevant to agroforestry, have also been given.

INTRODUCTION

Agroforestry combines agriculture and forestry technologies to create more integrated, diverse, productive, profitable, healthy and sustainable land use systems. According to the Association for Temperate Agroforestry - “Agroforestry practices are intentional combinations of trees with crops and/ or livestock that involve intensive management of the interactions between the components as an integrated agroecosystem”. These key characteristics are the essence of agroforestry and are what distinguish it from other farming or forestry practices. To be called agroforestry, a land use practice must satisfy all of these criteria:

ABSTRACT

The popularity and belief in natural and herbal healthcare systems is inseparable from traditional ethos and practices in India. India has been known to be a rich repository of medicinal plants since time immemorial. Now many countries like China, Cuba, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand etc. have endorsed the official use of traditional system of Medicines in their healthcare programmes. The western system of medicine (allopathy) too has a large component of plant based drugs and most potent medicines use specific chemical constituents which in turn has generated bulk demand. A dramatic increase in exports of MAP’s (medicinal and aromatic plants) attests to global interest in their products as well as in the traditional health system. Past efforts of 27 years in agroforestry research and extension is now yielding results; Agroforestry is coming up in private as well as community lands in a big way for both subsistence as well as commercial purposes. Incorporation of medicinal plants in agroforestry will not only diversify the cropping system but will also lead to conserve and reduce pressure on medicinal plants in forest besides improving economic status of the farmers.

ABSTRACT

The integration of woody perennials on the farm lands for obvious reasons has been the common practice with the farming community for ages. It is true that the integration of trees on the farmland, albeit paves the way for the improvement of existing system, but nevertheless creates complex biological interactions, which may not necessarily result in yield advantage. Management of multipurpose tree species, especially agroforestry tree species, integrated on the farmland with crops, is essential for two reasons, i) because canopy size decides the transmission of photosynthetically active radiation to the understorey crops and ii) that the impact of canopy management practices some times have drastic implications. Canopy management practices like coppicing; pollarding and partial crown removal not only affects foliage and branch wood biomass production but also modifies physiological parameters and resource utilization pattern. This paper deals with the need and techniques of managing canopy as well as the research activities carried out in this regards.

ABSTRACT

Women nearly constitute half of the population of the mountainous region of northwestern Himalayas. Rural hill women with their multiple roles and functions in the society, form an integral part of sustainable development of hills. Irrespective of age and health, they have to perform domestic household and agriculture work. Collection of fodder, firewood and fuel wood from the forest areas for energy requirements and household cooking are also done by women. The present paper provides the background information about the women in hilly areas and their dependence on agroforestry for meeting daily requirements of household.

INTRODUCTION

More than ninety per cent of mountain population inhibit in rural areas. Women nearly constitute half of the population of the region having composite social profile. Mountain specificities which consists of habitats, societies and their interactions and adaptations can prove to be constraints as well as opportunities. Comparative economic growth or development and dynamism in social-economic structure are due to interlinking of various land use systems including agriculture, horticulture, forestry, animal husbandry and tourism. Rural women play a pivotal role in sustainable development of their areas and form an integral part of subsistence rural economy (Thakur, 2003). They are considered nucleus of hill farming because of their multiple functions/ role in the society. Hence this section of the society in the region is the main and basic asset. They depend on their surrounding environment for many of the basic needs, therefore they are inextricably linked with natural resources and environment, and thus have to cope with the harsh environment by developing mountain specific adaptations.

ABSTRACT

The paper discusses distribution of bamboo, their uses and bamboo based agroforestry systems in India and their future potential. Bamboo, one of the fastest growing plant species is extremely versatile and has been traditionally put to a large number of uses. Application of modern technology and industrial processing has catapulted bamboo into a new global limelight. At present there is huge demand of bamboo based raw material viz., timber, plywood, bamboo flooring, edible bamboo shoots, etc. in the international market and most of the international market of bamboo is captured by China. In India, most of the bamboo raw material comes from natural forest. To capture the emerging bamboo market we have to increase the bamboo cultivation outside the forest under different bamboo based agroforestry systems. Experiments have shown that bamboo based agrisilviculture systems is technically and economically feasible in our country under different agro-ecological conditions. The agriculture crops which can be profitably grown with bamboo are soybean, pigeon pea, ginger, turmeric, etc. Keeping in view the international scenario, ecological conditions and taking clues from China’s success stories, some of the bamboo based agroforestry system components are also proposed.

ABSTRACT

Minerals are important raw materials for the economic development of any nation. However, unscientific mining for minerals poses a serious threat to the environment. Mine spoils from outer Uttaranchal Himalaya are highly variable from loose to hard and compact at places. Rehabilitation technology for degraded mine sites consist of several steps, each of them playing an important role. Rehabilitation of these spoils is imperative to meet our demand of fuel, fodder, timber, reduce soil erosion and improve environmental pollution. The paper presents the efforts of rehabilitation of mine spoils in Uttaranchal Himalayas both mechanical as well as vegetative measures. Agroforestry techniques used in rehabilitation of mine spoils has been given in this paper.

INTRODUCTION

Himalayan region which constitute about 54 million ha (16.5%) area of the country is characterized by marginality, inaccessibility and fragility, compounded by high intensity erratic rainfall, steep slopes, large scale deforestation and faulty management practices. Natural resources in the region are under great stress due to mounting human and livestock populations. The increasing frequency of natural disasters, e.g. landslides, floods, droughts and deterioration of water bodies due to accelerated deforestation, conversion of marginal/forest land into agriculture and unscientific developmental activities e.g. mining, roads etc. further aggravate the problem. Soil erosion is the major constraint in crop production. High intensity rains in the monsoon season cause excessive runoff and soil loss. On erosion-prone steep slopes, about 50 per cent of the rainfall is lost as runoff, carrying with it 20 t ha-l soil.

ABSTRACT

In agroforestry and forestry sectors, little efforts have been made for tree improvement research in India. Planting of genetically poor quality of seedlings/propagules is one of the major reasons of low level impact of agroforestry systems in Indian Agriculture. Most of the agroforestry tree species have not been even gone through simple selection for superior types (plus trees). Exploration, collection and conservation of germplasm of woody agroforestry species, selection for fast growing trees, clonal propagation, seed orchards and other advances in tree breeding are still in fancy stage. At present, all the woody agroforestry species are propagated through collected seeds and/or propagules by unskilled labourers. It is well known that through tree breeding and establishment of seed orchards of improved genotypes, significant achievements towards the improvement of productivity of economic tree products is possible as happened in agricultural crops in India and industrial trees in USA and Europe. Even by small efforts of tree improvement, productivity of economic tree products can be raised by 20-30 per cent. In this paper breeding methodology, limitations, status and strategy of various agroforestry species has been discussed in special reference to Leucaena leucocephala (Subabul), Prosopis cinereria (Khejri), Azadirachta indica (Neem), Populus spp., Dalbergia sissoo (Shisham), Acacia nilotica (Desi babul), Eucalyptus spp. Casuarina equisetifolia (Casuarina), Albizia lebbek (Desi siris) and Jatropha curcus (Ratanjot).

ABSTRACT

Contour hedgerow technology has different names in different regions. Sloping Agriculture Land Technology (SALT) has alley farming with hedgerow barrier technology. It is basically an agroforestry system in which nitrogen - fixing trees or shrubs are planted very closely in rows and cash crops grown in between the alleys. The SALT has been considered as an alernative to shifting cultivation. Forest dwellers are mostly tribals and shifting cultivation have been their practice for food production. The slash and burn has caused enormous damage to the forest composition. The forests on the hills and on the mountains have suffered a lot due to “Podhu” cultivation. The similar situations have been observed also in most of the Asian country. The hilly area has been considered under the hedgerow system for soil and water conservation. The introduction of the agroforestry systems in the farmers fields and in the wastelands have brought potential forest farming. The young leaves of some hedge row plants provide good fodder for livestock. Hedgerows can also be managed to provide fuelwood, if necessary. The hedgerows and their trimming provide mechanical and biological barriers and help minimise soil erosion by reducing surface runoff velocities, leading to higher deposition of soil sediments and living source of nutrient cycling. The food and cash production has been observed to be the most essential components in four types of SALT models.

A. Write the full form of the following:

i.         AAFCO: Association of American Feed Control Officials.

ii.        AAS: Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometry

iii.       HPLC: High Performance/Pressure Liquid Chromatography

iv.       GLC: Gas Liquid Chromatography

v.        AFRC: Agriculture & Food Research Council.

vi.       AICRP: All India Coordinated Research Project.

vii.      AOAC: Association of Official Analytical Chemists

viii.     ARC: Agricultural Research Council (United Kingdom)

ix.      BIS: Bureau of Indian Standard

x.      CIRC: Central Institute for Research on Cattle, Meerut

xi.     CIRG: Central Institute for Research on Goats, Makhdoom.

xii.    CLFMA: Compounded Livestock Feed Manufacturers Association (of India)

xiii.   COP 22: 22nd Conference of Parties.

A. Answer the following question?

1.    Mention the factors which affect the chemical composition of green forage?

Ans: Soilcompositionandhealth,applicationofmanureandfertilizer, frequency of irrigation, stage of growth, frequency of cutting and variety of strain.

2.    How does the age of plant affect the chemical composition of forage?

Ans: As the plants advance in age, dry matter, crude fibre and ash increase whereas the crude protein and ether extract decreases.

3.    What is food?

Ans: This is the combination of materials that provides nutrients

4. What is feed?

Ans: It refers to the food but most commonly used to animal food.

5. What is diet?

Ans: It is defined as the mixture of feedstuffs used to supply nutrientsto anyindividual.

6.    Whether mineral content of feeds remain fixed?

A. Answer the following?

1.    Why does camel mostly eat carbohydrates during desert travel?

Ans: Because increasedrespiration needed to oxidize body fat and protein which result in an increased loss of water by evaporation whereas carbohydrates oxidation results in lower loss of water.

2.    Why birds require less water than mammals?

Ans: Because uric acid is the end product of protein metabolism and is excreted in nearly solid form with minimum loss of water. Higher evaporative loss in birds is partially balanced bytheir reducedurinarywaterexcretionrelative to mammals. Besides, the breakdown of protein to uric acid provides more metabolic water than does its catabolism to urea.

3.    What is TDS?

Ans: TDS or total dissolved solids or salinity is a measure of the usefulness of water for animals or for crop irrigation.

4.    What is metabolic water?

Ans: When prganic compounds such as fat,protein, carbohydrates are oxidized in the animal body, water us produced as end product along with other usable products. Similarly, when proein, fat and carbohydrates are synthesized liberation of water takesplace. The water which is available to the animal body by such biochemical reaction is known as metabolic water.

5.    What is bound water?

A. Answer the following questions:

1.    What is concentrate ingredients?

Ans: These are feedstuffs having more than 60% TDN, less than 35% cell wall contents and less than 18% crude fibre on dry matter basis.

2.    What is soilage?

Ans: Pasture whether natural or cultivated when cut and fed green to an animal in its own stall is called soilage.

3.    What is husk?

Ans: Dry outer covering of grains and grams e.g. gram husk, rice husk.

4.    What is fodder?

Ans: Any green plant or crop meant for animal feeding for supply of nutrients and bulk.

5.    What is leguminous fodder?

A. Answer the following questions:

1.    What is proximate analysis?

Ans: Proximate analysisis a systemforapproximatingthenutritive valueof a feedstuff without actually usingit in a feedingtrial.

2.    Why proximate analysis is called Weende analysis?

Ans: In 1865, two scientists namely Wilhelm Henneberg and FriedrichStohmanndeviseda methodcalledWeende analysis/ proximate analysis at Weende Experiment Station, near the University of Goettingen, Germany. Hence, it is called ‘Weende Analysis’.

3.    Write the six proximate principles?

Ans: Water (moisture), ether extract (crude fat), crude fibre, total ash, crude protein and nitrogen free extract (NFE).

4.    Why ether extract is also called as crude fat?

Ans: As it is composed of true fats (glycerides of fattyacids) along with other substances like hydrocarbons, free fatty acids, fat solublevitamins,pigmentslike carotene & chlorophyll,waxes, sterols,lecithin(phospholipids), alkali substances,volatile oils and resins.

5.    What is NFE?

A. Answer the following question:

1.    What is carbohydrate?

Ans: Literally means hydrates of carbon. Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy (more than one OH group) aldehyde or polyhydroxy ketoneas in monosachharides; their olymers as in oligo and polysaccharides; their reduction products as polyhydric alcohols; oxidation products as aldonic, uronic, sacharic acid; substitution products as amino sugars.

2.    What is sugar?

Ans: The term sugar is generally restricted to those carbohydrates containing less than 10 monosaccharide residues.

3.    What is dextrin?

Ans: It is the intermediate products of the hydrolysis of starch and glycogen.

4.    What is exergonic reaction?

Ans: That portion of energy change during a reaction which is available to do work is termed the free energy change, designated, “G. when “Gis negative the reaction is said to be exergonic.

5.    What is substrate level phosphorylation?

Ans: Whenproductionof ATPfromADPtakesplacedirectlyduring a reaction, the process is known as substrate level phosphorylation.

6.    Why carbohydrate is a metabolically essential?

A. Answer the following Question

1.    Why availabilityof bacterial protein is low?

Ans: Because, bacterial protein is protected by cell wall (mucopeptide polymer) which are resistant to enzymatic action.

2.    What is isoelectric pH?

Ans: The pH at which an amino acid exists in solution as a zwitter ion is called isoelectric pH that is the pH at which the amino acid is electrically neutral and has no tendency to migrate towards either electrode.

3.    What is ketogenic amino acid?

Ans: Ketogenic amino acid refers to those amino acids which give rise to acetyl CoA and consequently the potential fatty acids producers. e.g. leucine

4.    Why chicks require higher level of arginine?

Ans: Since they do not have urea cycle and feathers are very high inarginine.

5.    Why chicks require high level of glycine?

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What is omega carbon atom?

Ans: The methyl carbon atom at the distal end of the fatty acid chain is called omega carbon atom

2.    Why mammals can not synthesize essential fatty acid?

Ans: Because of their inability to introduce double bond between the 9th carbon atom and the terminal methyl group of the fatty acid chain.

3.    What is acid value?

Ans: It is defined as the number of milligram of KOH required to neutralize the free organic acids in 1 gm of fat.

4.    What is saponification number?

Ans: It is defined as the number of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize the free fatty acid and saponify the esterified fatty acids in 1 gm of fat.

5.    What is iodine number?

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Why vitamin Ais called anti-infective vitamin?

Ans: Vitamin A is concerned with the synthesis of muco-polysaccharides distributed throughout the body as in respiratory tract,alimentary tract,reproductive tract,genitor-urinarytractetc. In thedeficiencyof vitaminA,theepithelium lining of these tracts becomes keratinized with the result that it becomes prone to infection. That’s why it is also called as anti-infective vitamin.

2.    Why ducks are less effective than chickens in converting tryptophan to niacin?

Ans: Ducks have a 3-4 folds higher level of picolinic acid carboxylase than chicken which enzyme converts the tryptophanto picolinic acid instead of niacin.

3.    Whyvitamin Cis dietaryessential tohumans, monkey, guinea pigs?

Ans: In these species, due to lack of L-gulonolactone oxidase enzyme which is required for synthesis of vitamin C (from 6 carbon sugars like glucose/ galactose in liver or kidney),they can not synthesize their own requirement in their bodies.

4.    What is vitamin?

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Why deficiency of potassium in livestock is very rare?

Ans: The potassium uptake by plants is about 10 times more than sodium. So, deficiency of potassiumin livestock is veryrare.

2.    HowZn helpsin vitamin Autilization?

Ans: Zn is a component of alcohol dehydrogenase which has a significant role in converting retinol to retinaldehyde or vice versa foreye vision, reproductionandutilization of Vitamin A

3.    What is parakeratosis?

Ans: This is a Zn deficiency disease in pig characterized by hyper keratinisation, thickening and reddening of skin followed by eruption and scab formation giving an appearance of mange.

4.    Why ruminant have additional requirement of vitamin B12? Ans: Theruminants have an additional requirementfor thevitamin B₁₂ because of itsinvolvementin themetabolismof propionic acid.

5.    Why perosis is also called as slipped tendon?

A. Answer the following question

1.    What is Gross Energy?

Ans: Gross energyistheamount of heat givenoffwhen a substance is completelyburntor oxidizedtooxidationproducts like carbon dioxide,waterandothergases ina bombcalorimeter containing 25-30 atmospheric oxygen psi.

2.    What is BTU?

Ans: It istheamount of energyas heat required toraise temperature of 1 pound of water by 10F

3.    What is Heat Increment (HI)?

Ans: The increase in heat production after the ingestion of feed when the animal is in a thermoneutral environment is known as heat increment.

4.    Why digestible energy (DE) is called apparent DE?

Ans: It is calledapparent because thefaecalenergyincludes energy of undigested feed; microbial cell residues spent digestive enzymes and abraded intestinal mucosa (FEm).

5.    WhyME values are higher in non-ruminants than ruminants?

A. Answer the following question

1.    Writethe two assumptions whicharetaken into consideration during CP estimation of any feedstuff?

Ans: In the feed, a) all N is present as protein and b) All food protein contains 16%nitrogen.

2.    What is protein equivalent?

Ans: It is the arithmetic mean of the percentage of DCP and DTP (digestible true protein).

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What is adulteration?

Ans: It is an intentional admixture of a pure substance with some cheaper and low quality ingredients in order to make more profit.

2.    What is sampler?

Ans: The appliance used for the collection of samples is knownas sampler.

3.    What is dry rolling?

Ans: The process of disintegration of kernels into particles with the application of pressure by moving rollers is known as dry rolling or cracking.

4.    What is crimping?

Ans: The process of rolling of feed ingredients with the use of corrugated rollers is called crimping

5.    What is crumbles?

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Define silage?

Ans: Whena freshgreenfoddercontaininghighmoistureisallowed to ferment under controlled anaerobic condition, produces some volatile fatty acids which preserve the green material for a long time is known as silage.

2.    What is ensiling?

Ans: The process of conserving green fodder as silage is called ensiling.

3.    What is silo?

Ans: Silo is an airtight container in which silage is prepared.

4.    Why hollow stemmed plants are not suitable for ensiling?

Ans: Because air remains trapped in the stem but once the stems are trampled then the fodder can also produce good silage.

5.    Why legumes are difficult to ensile?

A. Answer the following question

1.    What is ANF?

Ans: The substances that are naturally present in the feed which by themselves or by their metabolic products interfere with the feed utilization (FCR), reduce production and affect the health of the animal are called anti-nutritional factors.

2.    How does lectin cause agglutination?

Ans: Lectins have the affinityfor certain sugar molecules. Hence, it combines with the glycoprotein components of RBC and there bycausing agglutination of the RBC.

3.    Why ruminants are more resistant to gossypol toxicity?

Ans: It is due to formationof stablecomplexeswith soluble protein in rumen which are resistant to enzymatic breakdown.

4.    Why ruminants of Hawaii and Indonesia are not susceptible to mimosine toxicity?

Ans: Ruminants of Hawaii and Indonesia possess ruminal bacteria which can rapidly degrade 3-hydroxy-4(1H)-pyridone (3,4 DHP) and thus are not susceptible to mimosine toxicity.

5.    How saponin form stable foam?

A. Answer the following?

1.    How antibiotic increases nutrient absorption from the gut?

Ans: In antibiotic fed animals, the intestine becomes thinner and healthier, thus they helps in more absorption of nutrient.

2.    What is probiotic?

Ans: Probioticcan be defined asthe live microbial food supplement that beneficially affects the host animal by improving the intestinalmicrobial balance.

3.    What is prebiotic?

Ans: These are the compound other than dietary nutrients that modifythe balance of microbial populationbypromoting the growth of beneficial bacteria and thereby maintain healthier intestinal environments.

4.    What is eubiotics?

Ans: Eubiotics are defined as non-antibiotic products maintaining the desiredbalance of good bacteriaand pathogens or eubiosis in the digestive tract. e.g. direct acting gut flora modulator (organic acid, essential oil), probiotics, prebiotics, immune modulator.

5.    What is supplement?

A. Answer the following questions:

1.    What is Basis of scientific feeding?

Ans: Knowledge of the quantitative needs of the body for various nutrients and the relative value of feeds as sources of them is the basis of scientific feeding.

2.    What is the minimum requirement of animal per group to conduct a feeding trial?

Ans: Minimumanimal per group should be 4.

3.    When you will go for t test and ANOVA test?

Ans: In case of two rations, ‘t’ test and if it is 3 or more then ‘Analysis of Variance’ or ‘ANOVA’ test is applied.

4.    What are the advantages of feeding trials with laboratory animals?

Ans: It involves much less cost of animals, less feed and labour cost,requiredlesstime,individualvariabilitycanbe minimized due to similar genetic and nutritional history which is not possible in case of large animals, large number of animals can be used at a time and easy to slaughter the animals for histological and chemical analysis

5.    What is the purified form of nutrients?

Ans: Casein, urea or purified soybean protein for protein; starch, glucose or sucrose for carbohydrate; oils or lards as source of fat; chemically pure salts as minerals; pure crystalline compounds as vitamins.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What isdigestibility?

Ans: The portion of a feed or any single nutrient of feed which is not recovered in faeces i.e the portion which has been absorbed by the animal is called digestibility.

2.    Whatis digestibilitycoefficient?

Ans: When the digestibility is expressed in % then it is called digestibilitycoefficient.

3.    Why digestibility of ash is not calculated?

Ans: Digestibilityfor ashisnot calculatedsince mostof the minerals are re-excreted in the gut and it does not contribute to the energy content of food.

4.    Why digestibility of carbohydrate is overestimated?

Ans: This is because there are losses of ingested carbohydrate as methane and carbon dioxide. But these losses are not counted.

5.    Why digestibility of crude protein is underestimated?

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Define feeding standards?

Ans: Feeding standards are the statements or quantitative descriptions of amounts of one or more nutrients needed by the animals or human.

2.    Limitation of feeding standard?

Ans: Palatability and physical nature of the ration are not included and does not included the environmental factors because environment may change the nutrient requirements.

3.    Write down the merits of ME system?

Ans: ME gives more correct result than DE or TDN. It is because energy losses in urine and GDP are corrected in ME system and ME is cheaper and easier to obtain than NE values.

4.    What is the purpose of following feeding standard?

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What is balanced ration?

Ans: According to Morrison (1956), a balanced ration is one that furnishes nutrients in such proportions and amounts that it will properlynourisha givenanimalfor 24hours.The required nutrients must be contained in the DM provided during the 24 hrs period otherwise the ration can not be considered as balanced.

2.    What is ration?

Ans: A ration is the feed allowed for a givenanimal duringthe day of 24 hours.

3.    What is effective rumen degradable protein? (ERDP)

Ans: It has been defined as a measure of the total nitrogen supply that is actually captured and utilized by the rumen microbes for growth and synthetic purpose.

4.    How heat treatment causes protein protection?

Ans Heating causes denaturation of protein and this may be beneficial because of reduced ruminal degradation partly by blocking reactive sites for ruminal proteolytic enzymes and partly byreducingprotein solubility.

A. Write True or False of the following statements

1.    Goats have higher threshold level for bitter taste than other ruminants.

2.    Cattle is acknowledged as mobile pruning machine.

3.    Creep feed should have at least 10% DCP and 58% TDN. 4. Goat under brows condition performs better.

5.    Colostrumshould be fed to the kids @ 10ml/kgbodyweight.

6.    Creepfeed maybe introduced to kidsfrom101 days onwards.

7.    Due to difference in MBS, DMI is higher in larger breeds than smaller breeds.

8.    30-40% of feed intake by goat consists of leaves of shrubs and bushes.

A. Answer the following questions:

1.    What is NPN substances?

Ans: Feedstuffs which contain nitrogen in the form other than protein or peptides aretermed as non-protein nitrogen (NPN).

2.    What is liquid diet?

Ans: Liquid molasses containing 2-3% of uniformly mixed urea fortified with minerals andvitaminsis named as ‘liquiddiet’.

3.    Name few amides.

Ans. Urea (46.6% N) and Biuret (35%N)

4.    Name few amines:

Ans. Histamine from Histidine, Tryptamine from Tryptophan, Tyramine from Tyrosine, Betaine from Sugar beet pulp.

5.    Name few alkaloids.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What are metabolic diseases?

Ans: It is defined as disturbances of the internal homeostasis of the body brought about by an abnormal change in the rate of one or more critical metabolic processes.

2.    How do you prevent milk fever by nutritional management?

Ans: By providing a ration that contains 0.5-0.7% Ca and 0.3-0.4% P and by feeding 20 Million Units of vitamin D/cow/ day starting about 5 days before calving and continue for maximum7 days postpartum.

3.    What is the nutritional management strategy to prevent grass tetany?

Ans: A salt lick of 10 parts each of MgSO₄ and Ca(PO₄)₂ with 80 parts of salt is effective. Besides a mixture of 2 parts of MgO and 1 part salt is also effective measure.

4.    Write down the preventive measures of ketosis?

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Why ducks are highly susceptible to aflatoxicosis?

Ans: Ducks are about 200 times more sensitive than broilers and layers. Ducks contain a very high level of enzyme in the livertoconvert aflatoxinB to “aflatoxacol”. Besides, aflatoxin metabolism is 90 times faster in the duck liver than in rat liver.

2.    Why duck should have never access to feed without water?

Ans: Most mashes form a sticky paste when mixed with saliva and adhere to the papillae and other structures bordering the outer margin of the tongue and upper and lower bill. This caking interferes with the movement of the food mass to the tongue resulting in reduction of food intake and increase in feed wastage which occurs when the duck attempts to shake or wash off the mash adhering to its mouthparts.

A. Answer the following questions:

1.    What is flushing?

Ans: It means putting the sow on a more nutritious ration before breedingseasonto improvephysical condition of the female, prominent heat symptoms, increases ovulation rate, shortens period between weaning to successful conception, more uniform litter size and minimizes embryonic death, prompt post weaning estrus.

2.    What is piglet anaemia?

Ans: It is a condition occurs 2-4 weeks after birth when piglets do not have access to soil or pasture and are housed in concrete floor. Piglet anemia is characterized by labored spasmodic breathing(popularlyknownasthumps); hemoglobinlevelfalls to 3-4mg/100ml of blood, poor growth rate, wrinkled skin, rough coat, lack of healthy pink color of visible mucous membrane.

3.    Why pig industry in India has not yet been developed?

Ans: It is mainly due to the fact that pig is not used as meat by majority of meat eaters.

4.    Why it is advisable to offer cereal based ration to the piglets only after two weeks?

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Why Oats are mostly preferred by horse?

Ans: Because oats are low in energy, rich in fibre (8-11%), very soft and easily ruptured duringmastication, highly palatable, rich in oil content (5%), better protein quality (high lysine), more readily digested in the S.I. than maize and barley and moreover it provides a more open textured material in the stomach due to high fibre and are thus least likely to cause colic compared to other cereals.

2.    Why wheat is most likely cereal to cause colic in horse?

Ans: Because of its high gluten content since gluten leads to the formation of doughy lump in the stomach. Hence wheat should not be used exceptin small quantities or in low levels.

3.    Why Excessive feeding of wheat bran leads to ‘Big head disease’ or ‘Millers disease’ in horse?

Ans: It is due to an imbalance ratio of Ca and P in this bran i.e high in P and low in Ca. So, due to a Ca deficiency, Ca is withdrawn from the bone and the bone is replaced by a proliferationof fibrous connective tissue whichismainlyfound in the skull or jaw.

A. Answer the following questions

1.    What is the DM consumption in adult guinea pig? Ans. An adult animal consumes @ 7-8% of body weight.

2.    Mention daily average feed consumption of guinea pigs?

Ans: Growing Guinea pigs: 20-30g, Adult maintenance: 30-50g, Pregnant and lactating: 40-60g.

3.    Write down the peculiarities of digestive system of guinea pig.

Ans. The entire stomach of guinea pig is lined with glandular epithelium and gastric mucosa does not have a keratinized portion.

4.    Why guinea pig cannot synthesize vitamin C?

A. Answer the following questions

1.    Why protein requirement for maintenance in cat is high?

Ans: It is due to the inability of the nitrogen catabolic enzymes in the cat’s liver to adapt to changes in dietary protein intake.

1.    Why arginine is dietary essential in cat?

Ans: Because, cat is unable to synthesize ornithine which is an arginine precursorwithin theurea cycle. Aminoacid glutamic acid and proline is precursor of ornithine in the intestinal mucosa of all mammals.However, an enzyme thatis required in the pathway, proline-5-carboxylate synthatase is absent in cat’s intestinal mucosa. In the absence of dietary arginine, a high catabolism of protein generates a load of ammonia that cannot be detoxified by its incorporation to urea and hyper ammonia develops.

2.    Why taurine is dietary essential in cat?

A. Answer the following questions

1.    WhyvitaminAdeficiencyis far common in captive carnivores than free rangingwildlife?

Ans: Because they are fed exclusively on carcass meat without liver, cod liver oil or synthetic sources of vitamin A and moreover, thay can not convert ?-carotene to vitamin A.

2.    Why weekly off day feeding is practiced in tiger in all Indian zoos?

Ans: This ispracticed tostimulatetheintermittentfeedingbehavior of tiger in wild condition.

3.    Why metabolic bone diseases are very common in captive carnivores?

And: As the carcass meat provided in captivecondition is deficient in Ca and ratio of Ca: P (1:20) is very highly imbalanced.

4.    Write the extreme specializations in GItract seen in vampire bats?

Ans: Like blood sucking parasites, their GI tract is reduced to a tube since it feeds only on blood.

A. Multiple choices (you have to choose most appropriate answer among 4 alternatives)

1.    Which of the following bacteria in rumen is not cellulolytic

a. Bacteroides succinogenes

b. Ruminococcus flavefaciens

c. Ruminococcus albus

d. Succinivibrio dextrinosolvens

2.    Which of the following bacteria does not interact with anaerobic fungi

a. R. albus

b. R. flavifaciens

c. Butrivibrio fibrisolvens

d. Fibrobacter succinogenes

Nutrition involves various bio-chemical and physiological activities which transformfeed elements into bodyelements. These feed elements are nutrients which are digested, absorbed, utilized to build and renew the components of the animal body. As a result, animal grows and produces-milk, eggs, wool with the help of energy so produced in the body. Afterweaning, most of our farmanimals obtainall of their feedsupply from plants.Barringcarnivores, theplant kingdom is the original and essential source of all animal life, because plants are able to utilize the energy of the sun to build substances which nourishthe animal. Plants make use of carbon dioxide, water and mineral salts to form carbohydrates, fats and proteins which are utilized in the life processes of animal body. Thus plants store and animals dissipate energy.

Plants and their parts

Animal body and plants contain the same substances but they differ in relative amounts. There are also much larger compositional differences among species than do animals. Water is the principal constituent of living plants as well as animal body. With the maturity of seed, water content decreases. The dry matter of plants consists principally of carbohydrates, which serve as both structural and reserve material, while in animals, protein comprises the structure of the soft tissues and fat is the reserve. Thus, animal body contains only a trace of carbohydrate, though occurring as much less than 1 per cent at any given moment, because it is constantly beingformed and broken down in metablolism. Whereas, this is the principal constituent of most of the plant species. Protein is the main constituent of active tissues and thus leaves are much richer in this nutrient than are stems. Grass hays contain less protein than leguminous hays. When theplant matures, there isgradualmovementof protein fromthe vegetative parts to the seed. Thus, the seed contains a higher percentage of protein than the rest of the plant, as in grains and stovers.

Livestock feeds have a variety of feed stuffs for feeding. Composition and characteristics differ even amongcloselyrelated feeds.Also, cost and availability of such feeds at a particular place, makes the farmer to choose for practical feeding. Therefore, it becomes imperative to learn about such classes. Feeds may generally be classified according to the amount of a specific nutrient they provide intheration. Theymayconvenientlybe divided intotwo general classes– roughages and concentrates. Roughages are bulky feeds containing more than 18 per cent crude fibre, but less than 60 per cent total digestible nutrients. Contrary to this, concentrates have less than 18 per cent fibre, but more than 60 per cent total digestible nutrients. Roughages may be further sub-divided intosucculent and drytypes.Whereas, concentratesare sub-dividedintoEnergy or basal feeds havingless than 20 percent crude protein and Protein supplements havingmorethan 20percent crude protein. Followingfeeds indicate theoutlines of classification [Flow chart 1] of the conventional feeds into broad categories with examples.

There are six nutrients which are very important to animal body and they are – Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Minerals, Vitamins and water.

Carbohydrates: These are polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone as in monosaccharide or polymers in oligo or polysaccharides. The question arises whether carbohydrate is a dietaryessential !!! Carbohydratemay not be dietary essential but it is definitely metabolically essential. The organic compounds – fats, proteins are oxidized only in the presence of carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are the structural components of DNA, RNA, and some other vital organic molecules. Although less than 1% is present in the human body (because constantly being formed and broken down in metabolism), yet without the presence of this carbohydrate, the existence of living creature is at stake.

Carbohydrate in the form of glucose primarily provides energy in the body and excess amount of carbohydrate is stored as glycogen in the liver and muscle. More than fifty per cent of the energy value of the diet is provided by carbohydrate.

Glucose + 6O₂ → 6 CO₂ + 6H₂O + Δ E (675 k.cal)

They also exhibit protein sparing action because proteins are mainly required for tissue-building i.e. general wear and tear in the body. If there is any emergency, say animal is deficient in calories of the diet, then it will use adipose and protein tissues. It is said that proteins and fats are burnt or oxidized in the flame of carbohydrate.It means thatcertain intermediarycompounds of glucose oxidation through krebscycle are absolutely necessary for oxidation of proteins and fats. Again, in any emergency, if glucose level of the body goes down, fats and proteins take over and they get metabolized faster than the animal body

Mixture of nutrientscomprisingcarbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals, vitamins and water are feed stuffs. From the intestinal wall, very few of such nutrients can pass directly to the body tissues, therefore they must be degraded down into simple compounds before they pass through the mucous membrane of the gastrointestinal tract (G.I.T.) intothe bloodand lymph. This degradation process is regarded as ‘digestion’. Thereafter, the movement of these simple compounds through the mucous membrane oftheG.I.Tract into the blood iscalled absorption. Metabolism is the utilization of these nutrients by the animal body and then excretion of the end products takes place from the body. The digestion of feeds is carried out by three means namely, mechanical action: mastication in the mouth and the muscular contraction of G.I.Tract; chemical action: this is carried out by enzymes secreted by digestive juices and microbial action: this is also enzymatic action, but the enzymes are secreted by microbes instead of host.

In ruminants, it is the rumen which harbours bacteria, protozoa and fungi (Fig. 1) ; whereas in non-ruminants, it is the large intestine (Fig. 2). There are four compartments in the stomach-reticulum, omasum, rumenand abomasums. Reticulumprovides ruminantadditionalspacefor storage.Also, if byanychance, foreign bodies like nails, wires etc. reach over here alongwith feed, they are retained for longer periods and thus, soft organs are protected. Omasum squeezes out water from the feed with the help of its strong muscular walls. In the suckling calves or lambs, the two compartments-rumen and its continuation reticulum are less developed and both are joined by a tube like structure -oesophageal or reticular groove, which directly opens into abomasum. That is why in these sucklings, milk reaches straight into the abomasum, which is the true stomach. Rumen develops at about six weeks of age in these young ones. As these sucklings begin to eat solid feed, both rumen and reticulum enlarge greatly and separate. Now oesophageal or reticular groove does not exist.

Thousands andthousands ofsamples ofvarious feeds andfoddersweresubjected to Weende analysis fortheir chemical composition have been depictedin various manuals. Such proximate principles of these feeds provide only the potential value forreference or consultationpurpose, but not theactualvalue of feedstuffs. Losses of nutrientsinfaeces(solids), urine (liquid), gasesetc.duringthe digestion, absorption andmetabolismof theanimal shouldalso be taken into consideration. Therefore, a need arises to conduct digestibilitytrial or experiment for the feeds in the ruminant animals. Major portion of the nutrients present in the feeds are not properly digested in the gastrointestinal tract (G.I.T.), hence not completely available to the animal body. Digestibility is that portion of a feed or any single nutrient of feed, which is not excreted in the faeces or dung and it is therefore, assumed to be absorbed by the animal. When this digestibility is expressed in percentage, it is termed as ‘digestibility coefficient (D.C.)’.

There are three types of systems for expressing the energy value of feeds and many examples have been depicted in each of these systems the world over but here, one example has been taken up in each of these categories.

Digestible Nutrient Type

For example, Total digestiblenutrients (TDN) system: Digestibility coefficients of various organic nutrients like carbohydrate, fat and protein are determined by digestibility trials, which can be utilized to be involved for total digestible nutrients as a measure of nutritive value of feeds. Here only faecal enegy loss has been considered barring losses from other channels. Hence roughages are overestimated bysuchcalculations.Otherwise, thismethodissimple, economical and has some basis for animals to be fed on such standard in India. The TDN value is expressed in percentage as following :

% TDN = % dig. C.P. + % dig. C.F. + % dig. N.F.E. + [% dig. E.E. X 2.25]

The animal bodycan be imagined as a machine, which is gettinginput of desired or available feed given by the farmer and this animal body after processing through various metabolic activities, output of product is given off. Feed is composed of organic nutrients-carbohydrate, fat and protein and after reaching in the animal body, used for constructive work, for example synthesis of body tissues and other associated work. Later, milk or egg is produced as an output. Now putting the same perspective in terms of energy, that is, these organic nutrients of the feed contain chemical energy and after reaching in the animal body, used as mechanical energyin muscles or heat energyin metabolism. The energy in the body would be utilized for the synthesis of body tissues or other productive output, for example, draft work by bullocks. Therefore, energy is primarily required for the maintenance of the body and then, for the productive purposes :

• Growth for all the farm animals

• Milk from cow, buffalo, sheep, goat • Eggs from poultry, duck, turkey

• Wool from sheep

• Meatfromfatteninganimals under the law, for example– mutton, chevon, pork, chicken.

Crude protein of feedscontain true proteinandnon-proteinnitrogen. Trueprotein is madeupaminoacids andforthemaximumefficiency, feed musthave essential amino acids in correct proportion, correct balance as well as non essential amino acids should also be in sufficient amounts. About digestion in simple stomached animals, the true protein is degraded to oligo peptides (less than ten peptides) in the stomach, subsequently to mono peptide and amino acids in the small intestine. Thereafter amino acids are assimilated in the small intestine. But in ruminants, the situation is complex in the sense that feed proteins get digested in the rumen but even amino acids are also broken down by microbes and thereafter, amino and carboxylic groups are released. Secondly, synthesis of new amino acids or proteins takes place for the formation of their own microbial body coat. Because of these reasons, the approach for protein evaluationor expressionisdifferent inruminant andnon-ruminant animal.Further, non-protein nitrogen portion of feed can not be utilized effectively by non – ruminants like swine and poultry. These animals are usually fed with oil cakes, cereals and cereal by-products, which are poor in non-protein nitrogen compounds, however, young succulent fodders, clover etc. are rich in such compounds.

Declaration of facts about the amounts of nutrients required by the various classes of livestockfor differentphysiologicalfunctions like maintenance, growth, lactation, eggproduction, wool productionetc. are in generaltermed as “Feeding standards”. Nutrient requirement is the statement of what animals on an average require for a particular function.Allowanceis greater than the required amount by a ‘safety margin’ which is allowed for variations in requirement between individual animals. Such standards may be expressed in quantities or in dietary proportions, for example gram per day, this method of expression is used mainly for animals given exact quantities of feeds; or gram per kilogram of the diet, this method is used for animals fed to appetite.

Various units are used for feeding standards – for ruminants, the energy requirements may be stated in terms of net energy, metabolizable energy or feed units and protein requirements in terms of crude protein, digestible crude protein or metabolizable protein. It is obviously desirable that the units used in the standards should be the same as those used in the evaluation of feeds. For dairy cows, the requirements are given separately for maintenance and for milk production. But for growing chickens, they are given for maintenance and growth combined. In some instances, the requirements for single functions are not known, for example, vitamins and trace elements. As mentioned above, in feeding practice, the requirement amount is accompanied by the addition of a ‘safety factor’.