eChapters

Alstroemeria belongs to the family Alstromeriaceae. Alstroemeria flowers third in terms of popularity and foreign exchange earnings in Kenya after roses and statice. Alstroemeria is named after a Swedish botanist “Baron Klas von Alstroemer”. The popularity of this flower is still growing in the global perspective. It is one of the quickest growing flowers with varying colours like purple, lavender, salmon, red, pink, white, orange, yellow and bicolour. It is grown for cut flowers but is also popular as a potted plant. It is grown in the higher ranges of the Western Ghats, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Karnataka in India.

INTRODUCTION

Alstroemeria is still a relatively new cut flower in the world market and the interest in it is continuously growing. This increase is due to the fact that this flower crop is fairly easy to cultivate and does not require special demands. Its flowers are beautiful and have a very long vase life. It is commonly known as Brazilian Parrot lily or Peruvian lily or Incan lily or Red Parrot Beak or New Zealand Christmas Bell. In the Dutch market, it is an important cut flower and gaining popularity in the international market. Recently some efforts have been made to popularize this flower in India as cut flower and pot plants by some multinational companies. Its cultivation has been started around Bangalore, Pune and Hyderabad. Recently it has been introduced in Palampur, Solan, Srinagar and Ooty, to popularize this crop among growers for domestic and export markets. This crop can be grown successfully on the hill areas of Uttaranchal. Mid and high hill areas are very suitable for growing it. Alstroemeria is a typical greenhouse crop, but can be grown in open under mild environments with partial modifications. It is a potential, low volume and high value crop for hill horticulture.

This chapter introduces Alstroemeria as a high-value cut flower commonly known as Peruvian lily. It discusses its origin, distribution, genetics, botanical characteristics, commercial varieties and protected cultivation requirements. Temperature, humidity, light, carbon dioxide, irrigation, nutrition, crop management, harvesting and postharvest handling are addressed. The chapter also considers grading standards, vase-life enhancement and important pests and diseases. Particular attention is given to modern hybrids and greenhouse production for high-quality stems.

Alstroemeria belongs to the family Alstromeriaceae. Alstroemeria flowers third in terms of popularity and foreign exchange earnings in Kenya after roses and statice. Alstroemeria is named after a Swedish botanist “Baron Klas von Alstroemer”. The popularity of this flower is still growing in the global perspective. It is one of the quickest growing flowers with varying colours like purple, lavender, salmon, red, pink, white, orange, yellow and bicolour. It is grown for cut flowers but is also popular as a potted plant. It is grown in the higher ranges of the Western Ghats, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir and Karnataka in India.

ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION

The alstroemeria, sometimes called the Peruvian Lily, is native to Tropical America particularly Chile. There are some 30 species of alstroemeria that occurs in grasslands and Pampas of South America, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, Peru and Venezuela. In America, it flourishes in different climates from high in the Andes mountains to the deserts of Pacific coastline. Even deep into the tropics of Brazil, the plants flourish abundantly. It was introduced to Europe in 1753 when seeds were sent to Europe by Claus Alstroemeria of Sweden during his travels in South America. It was widely cultivated in England during the early 1800’s and it was John Hedgewood, the founder of the Horticultural Society who first introduced the white variety in 1832. Since then, the Alstroemeria has been hybridized extensively. It is named after a Swedish botanist, Baron Klas von Alstroemer, who brought the first seeds of A. oelegrina from South America to Europe. Columbia is the number one in the world as far as growing area of alstroemeria is concerned. The second and third positions are taken by the Netherlands and Japan respectively. Other producing countries are United Kingdom and Italy. Alstroemeria is a new introduction into the world floriculture scene.

Most commercial cultivars of alstroemeria are patented and protected through plant breeder’s rights. Because of the fact that quite a large number of new varieties and hybrids of alstroemeria are planted in various countries in each year, royalty is paid based upon their square footage under production or number of plants leased. The new Inca Collection bred by Konst Alstroemeria B.V. is a breakthrough in the presently dwarf alstroemeria assortment. The new extended range of alstroemeria cultivar offers the opportunity to grow these top quality perennials in the garden, pots and for cut flower. These dwarf type plants reaching a height from 20-50 cm, combine with the quality and colours of the long lasting flowers. New varieties have gained popularity in California (USA), New South Wales (Australia) and Spanish south east coastline, Sicily (Italy). However, for a very long time already alstroemeria has been cherished worldwide for its exotic flowers.

In India cultivation of alstroemeria has been started around Bengaluru, Pune and Hyderabad. It has been introduced in Palampur, Solan, Srinagar and hills of Uttrakhand and Ooty, to popularize this crop among growers for domestic and export markets (Singh, 2006).

Introduction

Plant pathogens include fungi, bacteria, viruses, viroids, phytoplasma, and nematodes.

They have evolved different strategies for invading, feeding on, and reproducing inside plants.

Biotrophic pathogens require living tissue to grow and reproduce.

Necrotic pathogens kill host tissue at the onset of infection and feed on the dead tissue.

Viruses generally require living tissue for survival.

Common names:  Sessile joyweed, Joyweed, Dwarf copperleaf (English), Geluti (Hindi), Ponnanganni green (Tamil) Latin names: Alternanthera sessilis (L) Syn: Alternanthera nodiflora R. Br., Gomphrena sessilis (L), llecebrum sessile (L) Linnaeus belongs to family Amaramlnaceaes.

Habit and Habitat
 
Perennial herbs, pantropical, damp shady areas, swamps, pond margins, shallow ditches, road sides, low-lying waste lands, damp pastures, cultivated areas. In New Guinea, «a plant of damp places; ditches, wet headlands, roadsides; sometimes a weed of plantations, particularly at altitudes of 1500 m or higher. From near sea level to over 2000m» (Henty & Pritchard, 1975). In Tonga, «occasional as a waste area weed» (Yuncker, 1959).

Alternate bearing or biennial bearing is a term used in fruit crops to refers to trees that have an irregular crop load from year to year. It is a major problem in some of the fruit crops. Long term studies of flower and fruit production in some of the fruit crops demonstrated that the majority of shoots on a tree bear flowers and then fruits in one year, i.e. a greater than average crop and the next year most of the shoots will produce only leaves resulting in a smaller than average crop.Thus, it is characterized by heavy crop load in trees i.e. on year, followed by a light or no subsequent crop load i.e. off year. When on and off year sequence does not follow a systematic pattern it is called periodicity of cropping or irregular bearing. Phenomenon of alternation is more prominent in the perennial fruit crops particularly Anacardiaceae (mango, Pistachionut), Carylaceae (hazelnut), Oleaceae (Olives), Rosaceae (apple, Pear, Plum, Apricot, etc.), Rutaceae (orange, tangor, satsuma, etc.) and also in tamarind, Jamun etc.

Alternate bearing (AB) or biennial bearing (BB) is a major challenge to growers and traders of fruit crops. It is typically initiated by an abnormally heavy crop in trees (on year), followed by a light or no subsequent crop (off year).When on and off year sequence does not follow a systematic pattern it is called periodicity of cropping or irregular bearing. Alternate bearing is assigned due to genetic factor while irregular bearing may be due to lack of good orchard management practices. Alternation becomes entrained and difficult to change unless severe climatic events intervene, or drastic management interventions are made. A heavy “on” crop results in reduced vegetative shoot and root flushing, and less carbohydrate (energy reserves) build-up. Phenomenon of alternation is more prominent in the perennial fruit crops particularly in Anacardiacae (mango and pistachio), Carylaceae (Hazelnut), Oleaceae (olives), Rosaceae (apple, pear, plums, apricot etc), Rutaceae (orange, Tangor, Satsuma etc) and also tamarind, jamun etc. fruit crops. Within a tree species some cultivars are regular while others are alternate bearer e.g. in mango Amrapali is regular while Langra is strongly alternate bearer.

Imbalance between feed availability, feed ingredient prices, and livestock product prices, such as milk, meat, and eggs, leads to poor animal performance, low growth rates, reduced reproductive efficiency, and high morbidity and mortality rates. This issue is particularly severe in South Asian countries like Pakistan, Nepal, India, and Bangladesh, where there is a widespread lack of sufficient high-quality feed. To address this challenge, it is essential to develop technologies for utilizing non-conventional feeds and fibrous agricultural residues more effectively.
The large number of livestock in these countries is both an asset and a liability. Many of the less productive animals are owned by impoverished individuals who have no alternative livelihood options and cannot reduce their livestock numbers. Therefore, efforts must be made to enhance production by optimizing the use of available feed resources, minimizing losses from diseases and parasites, implementing better management practices, and focusing on genetic improvement. The primary feed resources in these regions are crop residues, such as rice and wheat straws, sorghum and maize stovers, and sugar cane bagasse. These materials are typically low in protein and high in fiber, with energy content in a lignified form.
India, with 17.5% of the global population and 20% of the world’s cattle population, faces challenges due to limited land availability for agriculture. The country’s animal population grows at a rate of 0.66% annually, while the human population increases rapidly at 1.6%. With only 4% of cultivable land allocated to farm feed production, there is intense competition between human and animal populations for food and fodder resources. India currently experiences a deficit of 44% in concentrate feed ingredients, 10.5% in dry crop residues, and 35.6% in green fodder, exacerbating the shrinking farmland due to urbanization.
Traditional feed in India consists of crop residues or straw from grains like jowar, bajra, ragi, wheat, and barley, either whole or ground. These materials can be fed alone or in combination with fresh fodder. The limited availability of land for fodder crops necessitates the exploration of non-traditional or

Marginal and sub marginal lands are being brought under cultivation to meet the demand of human and livestock in terms of rising demand of 6F viz., food, fodder, fuel wood, fibre and fertilizer. These in lands are unable to sustain productivity. Cultivation on such lands leads to imbalance in the ecosystem. In order to meet the above said demands and to conserve the natural resources, a diversified land use system needs to be adopted in different agro-ecological regions of the country as an alternative to conventional cropping systems. Through this approach, the biological productivity and quality of resource base of degraded lands can be significantly enhanced. Land use systems which are alternatives to crop production are called by the term ‘Alternate Land Use Systems’.

Milk is considered to be a perfect food which contains almost all the macroand micronutrients required for normal body growth. However, it is highly perishable in nature which poses problem during its storage. It gets spoiled within few hours after milking if not processed or cooled immediately. It can also be a source of several disease causing microbes as it is conducive for the growth of microorganisms.

Alternative agriculture is a production system that follows the concept of agroecology and does not use conventional methods. Natural farming, Bio-dynamic farming, Organic farming, Permaculture, Homa farming and many others are considered as alternative agriculture. In spite of some differences, these practices aim at preserving the environment and minimise the use or avoid synthetic agrochemicals. They rely on natural cycles, by using crop rotations, cover crops or no-tillage, etc.

Introduction

Limited feed supply and poor quality of the available feeds are the major constraints for optimal livestock and poultry productivity in all developing nations like India. Most of the regions in India are characterized by irregular rainfall and thus livestock have to survive on persistent shortage of feed resources of low nutritive value for most part of the year. The poultry industry is an important livestock sub-sector in India with a potential to solve the problem of malnutrition, unemployment and augmenting rural economy. However, high feed cost decreases animal production which contributes to lower animal protein availability for human consumption. This vicious cycle of low productivity and intake of animal protein has been maintained and sustained by the scarcity of feedstuff.

1. Introduction
The aquaculture industry has experienced unprecedented growth in recent decades, emerging as a critical sector in global food production. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), aquaculture is the fastestgrowing food production system worldwide, with an annual growth rate of approximately 5-6%. This remarkable expansion is primarily driven by the increasing demand for seafood, fueled by factors such as population growth, urbanization, and changing dietary preferences towards healthier protein sources. As seafood consumption continues to rise, the aquaculture sector faces the challenge of producing fish that meet consumer demand while ensuring sustainable practices that protect marine ecosystems.
A key component of fish production is nutrition, which directly influences fish growth, health, and overall productivity. Among the essential nutrients required by fish, lipids play a pivotal role in providing energy, supporting metabolic functions, and delivering vital fatty acids that are crucial for growth and development. Traditionally, fishmeal and fish oil derived from wild-caught fish have served as the primary lipid sources in aquaculture feeds. These sources are rich in high-quality protein and essential omega-3 fatty acids (n-3 PUFA), which are crucial for the optimal health and growth of various fish species.

1 Many of active ingredients in chemically manmade drugs are derived from plant components

a) Pyrethroids b) Organophosphorous

c) Carbamate d) Organochlorine

The whole plants or their parts have been used as source of medicine and health tonics both in medical and veterinary practice since time immemorial. Many of
the active ingredients in chemically manufactured drugs have been originally derived from plant components (e.g. pyrethroids). Despite availability of
the modern allopathic medicines, herbal medicines are still used on a very large scale. In the back drop of current global trade of herbal medicine and
intellectual property right (IPR) scenario, and to overcome side effects of ‘single golden molecular bullet’ drug technologies of twentieth century, there
is an upsurge of interest in traditional practices.

Abstract

Remotely sensed data have become the primary realistic source for natural resources and biomass estimation, since last 30 decades. A summary of earlier research on remote sensing and GIS based biomass estimation approaches and a discussion of existing issues prompting biomass estimation are very valuable for further improving biomass estimation performance with the integration of geographical information systems. This paper discusses the recently most accurately alternative research methods to integration of remote sensing and GIS applications for identification, characterization and analysis of biophysical characters. The remote sensed data and geographical information systems using the accurate assessment of natural resource and management for the enhancement of biomass production and estimation. There is not any other option for the perfectly biophysical and natural resources estimation in small to large area. The earlier research has demonstrated that biomass estimation remains a challenging task, especially in those study areas with complex forest and mixed traditional cropping systems and environmental conditions. Either optical sensor data or radar data are more suitable for forest sites with relatively simple forest stand structure than the sites with complex biophysical environments. A combination of spectral responses and image textures improves biomass estimation performance. More research expertise is needed to focus on the integration of remote sensing, GIS& GPS, the use of multisource data, and the selection of suitable variables and algorithms for biomass estimation at different scales. Understanding and identifying major uncertainties caused by different stages of the biomass estimation technique and applying strength of mind to reduce these uncertainties are critical.

Keywords : Integrating, Remote Sensing, Bio-physical, Resources, Environment

Use of animals in teaching is an inevitable process of learning in Veterinary and Animal Science colleges. Consequently, animals have to be handled for anatomical demonstration, surgical practice and used as experimental animals in various investigatory researches. The apprehensions and pain the animals have to suffer from these handlings (mishandlings) have brought the need to look for alternative ways to deal with animals and yet the purpose of learning about them does not diminish. Now-a-days, a growing emphasis is placed on minimizing the overall use of animals alongside advancements in science.

8.1. INTRODUCTION

Aluminium (Al) is not considered as essential nutrient, but at low concentrations it may increase plant growth or induce other desirable effects (Bollard and Butler, 1966; Foy, 1988; Huang et al., 1992a, b; Roy and Mandal, 2005). Al affects about 40-70% of the world arable land, which has the potential for food crops biomass production (Haug and Caldwell, 1985). Acid soils constitute about 3.95 billion hectares globally. About 38% of those are present in Tropical Asia (Datta, 2002). It is believed to cover more than 800 million hectares of forest and tropical Savana ecosystems of tropical America (Jaffe and Rojar, 1994; Prakash 2000). Nearly 75% of Amazon Basin contains acid and infertile soil classified as oxisols and utisols. About 383 million hectares (79%) of the Amazon area, suffers from Al toxicity. Acid soil occurs extensively in the some of the Mediterranean countries and Southern Australia. Low laying acid sulfate of Bay Islands in India chronically suffer from Al-toxicity (Chowdhury et al., 2001).

Abstract

The word “mycorrhiza” literally means “fungus root” to describe the mutualistic association between roots of higher plants and certain fungi. Arbuscular mycorrhizae (AM) are the most common and widely occurring of all the mycorrhizal associations and have great economic significance. They belong to the phylum Glomeromycota. Mycorrhizal associations are potential factors in determining the diversity in ecosystems. They can probably modify the structure and functioning of a plant community in a complex and unpredictable way. Currently there is considerable resistance against the use of chemical pesticides and fertilizers, because of their hazardous influence on the environment, and on soil, plant, animal, and human health. Hence, use of biofertilizers and biocontrol agents are recommended in practical agriculture/horticulture/forestry.