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In general terms, dormancy can be defined as a period during the biological cycle of the plant in which growth of the whole organism (seed) or a plant organ (bud, tuber, corm etc.) is suspended eventhough the environmental conditions for growth may be favourable. More specifically, dormancy refers to a condition in which growth is inhibited by a restriction of essential metabolic processes, such as water uptake, gas exchange and cell division, either as a result of endogenous dormancy-controlling factors or in response to exogenous factors such as changes in the environment. It is distinct from a transient state of quiescence or rest imposed by an unfavourable environment in that dormancy persists even when the environment becomes favourable for growth whereas quiescence ceases.

For wild plants, dormancy has evolved as a means of enabling the plant to endure periods of stress due to drought or low temperatures and is therefore critical for the survival of the species. In cultivated arable or vegetable crops, breeding has generally led to a loss of dormancy or a reduction in the length of the dormant period. In arboreal crops of temperate climates, however, bud dormancy is still an essential feature of the annual growth cycle of the tree.

Bougainvilleas (Bougainvillea spp.) are most popular garden plant in India and widely grown in all types of gardens. Colourful bracts in wide array of colours like white, yellow, pink, magenta, bi-coloured besides several bract forms (single, double) are the main reason of their popularity. Nevertheless, free flowering habit and requirement of low maintenance are the other plus points. When in bloom, Bougainvilleas produce strong colorful effect in the landscape gardens and an adorning beauty to see. Flowering of Bougainvillea is comparable only with the ‘Azaleas’ of the temperate region. In tropical gardens, there is dearth of flowers after March when winter annuals start fading out. As a result gardens become drab and unattractive. Bougainvilleas usually start mass blooming from March and help to maintain the gardens in presentable form. Therefore, they are perfect choice for every garden specially getting flowers in harsh climatic condition.

Bougainvillea belongs to the family Nyctagenaceae and is a native of Rio de Janerio, Brazil. Out of ten species, only four have colourful bracts and horticulturally important viz. Bouganivillea glabra, B. spectabilis, B. peruviana and B. x buttiana.

Introduction

Technological advances of the past two decades have profoundly reshaped and enhanced all aspects of medical research and practice. Concepts, methodologies, tools, and applications of medical informatics with the latest technique and approaches are essential for every one pursuing in the medical IT field. Improvements in healthcare delivery in recent years are rooted in the continued industry-wide investment in information technology and the expanding role of medical informatics. The main goal of this chapter is to collate and provide innovative and creative ideas so far published on healthcare in one article for use by the researchers, practitioners and other related with health care system for improving communication environments in health and to explore all new technologies in medical informatics and health care delivery systems.

Medical Informatics can be defined as a discipline concerned with all aspects of understanding and promoting the effective organization, analysis, management, and use of information in health care (American Medical Informatics Association, 2007). In recent years, medical informatics has become a well-recognized branch of medicine.

Livestock manure is principally composed of organic material. When this organic material decomposes in an anaerobic environment, methanogenic bacteria produce methane. These conditions often occur when large numbers of animals are managed in confined areas (e.g. dairy, swine, and poultry farms, and beef feedlots, where manure is typically stored in large piles or disposed off in storage of lagoons or tanks).

Manure management will always be a part of livestock production. Management practices will have a significant impact on the environment regardless of the size of the operation. Producers who make wise manure management decisions help to maintain a healthy environment now and for generations to come. To reduce the risk of air or water quality damage from manure, understand how manure impacts air and water quality, keep the public in mind when locating, expanding or maintaining a facility, reduce the amount of material entering the waste stream, collect and store manure to preserve nutrients and minimize gas/odour emissions, apply manure to fields in a way that most fully utilizes the available nutrients, follow compositing to increase manure value, establish bio-gas unit as an alternate energy source and for the electricity generation and if possible integrate with fish production to augment income.

Based on the observations a model system of waste management was designed by systematic and scientific integration of a bio-fuel unit, settlement and slurry processing unit, aerobic composting, traditional composting, and preparation of value added products like Panchagavya, Jeevamritham, packed dried dung and fresh cow urine. There were no reports of odour or water pollution from nearby water sources. The overall results of the waste management indicated that this integrated system can be recommended as a model for waste management in dairy enterprises with beneficial effects on economic efficiency, environmental hygiene and quality control.

Practical case studies provide a direct connection between technical knowledge and the real-world challenges faced by ice cream manufacturers and managers. This chapter brings together applied situations involving formulation, overrun, texture, freezing, storage, cold-chain management, production losses, changeovers, product launches, market returns, profitability, and operational decision-making. Each case encourages readers to identify symptoms, determine probable causes, evaluate technical and commercial consequences, and develop corrective actions. The cases demonstrate that ice cream performance depends on the interaction of formulation, processing, quality, equipment, distribution, consumer expectations, and business strategy. The chapter is particularly valuable for students, technologists, entrepreneurs, managers, consultants, and industry professionals seeking practical problem-solving skills.

Vaccines
    
Veterinary v/s Human Vaccines
    
Modern Veterinary Vaccines
    
rDNA Technology to Prepare Vaccines
    
Veterinary Viral Vaccines
    
Live Vaccines
    
Killed Vaccines
    
Genetically Engineered Viral Vaccines
    
Veterinary Bacterial Diseases Vaccines
    
Veterinary Parasitic Vaccines
    
Vaccines against cancer
    
Swine Flu
    
Foot and Mouth Disease
    
Adenovirus Vector Vaccine
    
Johne’s Disease
    
Diseases of Poultry
    
Newcastle Disease in Poultry
    
Avian Influenza (Bird Flu)
    
Rabies
    
Disease Diagnostics
    
The Nucleic Acid-hybridization Technique
    
Diagnostics Based on pcr
    
Diagnosis by Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphisms and Related DNA-based Approaches
    
Diagnosis by DNA Probes and DNA Microarray Technology
    
Antigen-Capture Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) Proteomics
    
Disease Diagnosis Kits Developed
    
Brucelosis
    
Rabies
    
Canine Distemper and Canine Parvo Virus
    
Canine Hepatitis Virus
    
Foot and Mouth Disease
    
New Castle Disease
    
Egg Drop Syndrome Virus-76 (EDS-76)
    
Proteomics for Disease Diagnostics
    
Nanotechnologies in Diagnosis and Vaccine Development
    
Monoclonal Antibodies
    
Immunotherapy
    
Problems
    
Animal Genomics for Disease Resistance
    
Gene Knockout Technology
    
Gene Pharming
    
Gene Therapy
    
Types of Gene Therapy
    
Germ Line Gene Therapy
    
Somatic Gene Therapy

Abstract

The Indian western Himalayas have wide variation in altitude, climate, soils, flora and fauna and socio-economic features. Livelihood options are limited due to small and fragmented holdings and inherent hill and mountain specificities. However, the physiographic and agro-climatic variability also offer opportunities of cultivating wide variety of profitable traditional and market oriented crops for exploiting niche advantage. Non-timber forest products play a vital role for livelihood security and demand that initiatives at local and governmental level are taken to develop and popularize technologies for collecting, processing and value adding to these products for commercial exploitation. Research and self help institutions are important in this context but strong regulatory policy framework is equally important. Further, need based and location specific trainings and demonstrations need to be organized to fill the knowledge void especially in traditional activities and emerging vocational enterprises. The national and international business concerns, engaged in exploiting natural resources such as hydro power and calcareous and limestone deposits should also engage more meaningfully in this task, under their corporate social responsibility (CSR) Livelihood generating scheme such as MNREGS should be extended to the non-conventional activities like weed eradication, management of wild (monkeys) and stray (cattle) animals that threaten livelihood security.

Importance of Fruits and Vegetables in Human Life

Fruit is the edible, and more or less juicy, product of a tree or plant and consist of the matured ovary including its seeds and adjacent parts. Usually fruits are sweet, with a wide range of flavours, colours and textures.

Composition

Fruits are very poor source of protein and fat. Avocado is the exception containing 28% fat. Fruits contain high amount of moisture hence they are highly perishable. They are also good source of fiber. Fruits are not very good sources of calories. Fruits like bananas give fairly good amount of calories. Ripe fruit contains a higher percentage of sugar than unripe fruit does and the sugar is chief in the form of sucrose, fructose and glucose. Generally fruits are poor source of iron, Mangoes are excellent source of carotenes. Oranges are fairly good source of beta carotene. Guavas are the best source of vitamin C. Citrus fruits are good source of vitamin C. Cashew fruits are inexpensive and rich in vitamin C, although there is variation of vitamin content from fruit to fruit most fruits in the raw state contain some ascorbic acid. If fruits are bruised, peeled, cooked or exposed to air, large amounts of the vitamin may be oxidized. Apples are not only expensive; they contribute little to the nutritive value. They give fiber to the diet.

Insecticide resistance is a growing concern for those who need insecticides for medical, veterinary, and agricultural control of insect pests. In response to the introduction of DDT resistance in 1947, the incidence of resistance has increased annually by an alarming amount. Resistance is “the inherited ability of a strain of some organism to survive doses of a toxicant that would kill the majority of individuals in a normal population of the same species” (WHO, 1957).

As a result of continued insecticide application, the proportion of resistant insects increases compared to that of susceptible and the population becomes increasingly difficult to control

Above photograph theoretical example illustrating the increase of insecticide resistance levels in a pest population. Some individuals (black) with genetic traits allowing them to survive insecticide applications can reproduce; if the selection pressure is frequent, they easily become the preponderant part of the population (Fig. 1).

An adaptation to a pesticide leads to reduced susceptibility to it among the pest population targeted by that pesticide. In nature, pests develop resistance to chemicals through natural selection. In the most resistant organisms, their genetic traits are passed on to their descendants. Since 1945, at least 500 species of pests have developed resistance to pesticides (Anonymous, 2007), but other sources estimate as many as 1000 species (Miller, 2004).

There are about 6.5 million coconut farmers in the country. Coconut production, processing, marketing and other connected activities support the livelihood of over 12 million people. Coconut crop provides natural health drink, nutritious edible products and oil for edible and non edible uses, fibre of commercial value, shell and wood for fuel and industrial uses, and a variety of miscellaneous products of utility. Coconut is a symbol of national integration and prosperity. The crop is considered reverential cutting across linguistic and religious barriers promoting national integration. Contribution of coconut to the GDP of the country is around Rs. 100,000 million.

Horticultural crops play an important role in Indian agricultural economy. Though only 2.4% of cultivated area is under these crops, they contribute about 21% to the Agricultural GDP. Though horticultural crops contribute more for the national economy, its contribution could be further increased by minimizing 30% loss of horticultural crops due to pests and diseases. Continuous and unrestricted use have dictated the need for development of ecologically safer pest management technologies. Among the non-chemical methods, resistant varieties, cultural practices, plant derivatives and biocontrol agents are important and these methods can be integrated successfully. In recent years, interest among regulatory authorities, agricultural advisors and growers has forced to seek for alternative solution of plant disease management. It has encouraged intensive research of microbial products as agents for plant disease management. This resulted in commercialization of a number of microbial biocontrol products.

INTRODUCTION

The entire Himalayan region is vast and its diverse geographical grouping is unique and has complex ecosystem and occupies about 18% of the total geographical area of India. Indian Himalaya (27O 50' – 37O 06' N and 72O 30' – 97O 25' E) includes the parts of trans, north-west, west, central and east Himalaya and covers approximately an area of 4,19,873 Km2 with 2500 Km length and 240 Km width. The north-western Himalayas generally represent the Himalayan tract from Kumaon in Uttar Pradesh to Chitral in Gilgit. The Himalayan ranges situated in this region exhibit a diverse climate, topography, vegetation, ecology and land use pattern. The annual average rainfall varies from 8 cm in Ladakh to over 200 cm in some parts of Himachal Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. The vegetation may vary from the scrub in the lower hills to arctic in the Greater Himalayas. The unique physiography, climatic conditions and soil characteristics of the area has resulted in a variety of habitats and a significant biological and cultural diversity. Along the altitudinal gradient (300-800 m.a.s.l) the vegetation varies from sub-tropical, temperate, sub-alpine to alpine types. It supports about 8000 species (47.06% of the total flowering plants of India) of which 30% are endemics, 10.2% trees, 8.44% wild edibles and over 15% medicinal (Samant and Dhar 1997).

Economics revolves around key concepts such as goods value, price, wealth, income, savings, investment, and consumption. These concepts are interconnected and form the foundation of economic analysis. Below is a detailed explanation of each:
Goods: Definition, Types, and Economic Importance
Definition of Goods
Goods refer to tangible or intangible items that satisfy human wants and have value. Goods can be material (physical objects) or non-material (services), and they play a crucial role in fulfilling human needs and desires. They form the basis of economic activity, as humans constantly seek to fulfil their needs and desires.
Examples
Tangible Goods: You can touch them. Food, clothing, vehicles, dairy products. Intangible Goods (Services): Services you experience. Veterinary services, teaching, medical care.
Classification of Goods in Economics
Goods can be categorized based on different criteria such as material nature, supply, transferability, consumption, ownership, and income elasticity.

1.    Introduction    272
2.    Alcohols    273

    2.1.    Methanol, 274
    2.2.    Ethanol, 277
    2.3.        Butanol, 283

3.    Biodiesel    284
4.    P-series fuels

Abstract

Livelihood of ~80% of rural inhabitants depends upon agriculture that relies upon the prevailing environmental conditions such as water availability and temperature. If unfavorable to the crops, these conditions would impact production and productivity leading to food-insecurity. Various abiotic stresses are generated due to the physiography that includes altitude, topography, edaphic factors, water availability and ecosystem degradation. In spite of the environmental limitations, crops have survived suggesting operation of relevant adaptive mechanisms in the native species. Indeed, novel genetic mechanisms were present and these could be utilized to improve the plant productivity under stress conditions. Also there are issues on the management of abiotic stresses, which need to be addressed. The chapter presents framework and policies on sustaining agriculture production under the situations of abiotic stress to ensure production sustainability by protecting livelihood of the inhabitants. Western Himalaya was deliberately chosen as the focus for discussion.

1. Damping-off
Pathogen
Pythium aphanidermatum (Edson.) Fitz.
P. debaryanum                  
Rhizoctonia solani Kuhn.
Fusarium spp.
Sclerotium spp.
Symptoms
Damping-off of onion seedlings occurs in two stages:
    (i)    Pre emergence
(ii)    Post emergence
In pre emergence stage, plumules are killed before they reach the soil surface. They may be infected, killed even before the hypocotyls have broken the seed coat.

Farming System of India

Based on how income is derived from a farming enterprise: Specialized farming, diversified farming and mixed farming.

Based on mode of ownership and organization of farms: Individually owned, co-operative farming and collective farming

Based on scale of operations: Small scale farming and Large scale farming.

The sun is a hot ball of glowing gases at the heart of the solar system. Its radiant energy is practically the only energy source to the earth. Very small and insignificant quantities of energy are available from other sources such as the interior of the earth, the moon, and other stars. Without the sun’s intense energy and heat, there would be no life on earth.

PROPERTIES OF SOLAR RADIATION

The mean distance of the sun from the earth, also known as one astronomical unit (1 AU), is approximately 1.496 × 10⁸ km, though the distance varies as the earth revolves round the sun in an elliptical orbit. At this average distance, light travels from the sun to earth in about 8 minutes and 19 seconds. The energy of the sunlight supports almost all life on earth by photosynthesis, and drives earth’s climate and weather. The minimum sun-earth distance is about 0.983 AU and the maximum is approximately 1.017 AU. The earth is at its closest point to the sun (perihelion) on around January 3 and at its farthest point (aphelion) on around July 4.

The sun makes up about 99.86% of the mass of the entire solar system. The visible disk or photosphere has a radius of 6.599 × 10⁵ km, and the solar mass is 1.989 × 10³⁰ kg. The sun is a completely gaseous body. The chemical composition (by mass) of the outer layers of sun is 71% hydrogen, 26.5% helium, and 2.5% heavier elements like oxygen, carbon, neon, and iron among others. Since the sun is not a solid body, different parts of the sun rotate at different rates. At the equator, the sun spins once about every 25 earth days, but at its poles the sun rotates once on its axis every 36 days.