eChapters

The typical thoracic leg consists of six parts, basal coxa that articulates with the thorax in the pleural region, small trochanter, femur, tibia, segmented tarsus, and pre-tarsus. The coxa is often divided into two parts, the posterior and the anterior (usually the larger part) being called the meron. The trochanter articulates with the coxa but usually forms an immovable attachment with the femur. The femur and tibia are typically the longest leg segments. The tarsus, which is derived from a single segment, - is usually subdivided into individual tarsomeres. The pretarsus may consist of a single claw, but it is usually composed of a pair of moveable claws and one or more pads or bristles. Legs are usually looked upon as the principal organs of terrestrial locomotion.

Mouthparts of insects vary among insects of different groups depending upon their feeding habits. They are mainly of two types viz., Mandibulate (feeding mainly on solid food) and haustellate (feeding mainly on liquid food). Insect mouthparts have become modified in various groups to perform the ingestion of different types of food and by different methods. Indeed the modifications in the mouthparts to ingest almost all kinds of the food material, are one of the factors for the success of the group.

1. Biting and chewing type: e.g. Cockroach & grasshopper.

The collected insect samples can be inspected in the laboratory after detaching the antenna and putting them under the microscope. They can also be studied through the permanent slides of different types of antennae with the help of microscope.

Antennae are mobile sensory segmented appendages of the head. They articulate with head in front or between the eyes and arise from antennal socket. The size and shape of antennae varies in different insects. They are used for sensory perception which includes motion and orientation, odor, sound, humidity, and a variety of chemical cues. The Sensilla on the antenna acts as tactile, olfaction, carbon dioxide, temperature, wind, humidity, and sound receptors.

Structure of Antenna: Antennae consist of three parts

The grasshoppers are widely distributed throughout the country and may be seen in abundance during monsoon season. For the generalized morphological description, this insect has been considered as the most suitable representative of class insects because its structural details are not much variable. Apart from this, being larger, it can be studied easily. The generalized insect body is divided into 3 distinct body regions: a head, a thorax and an abdomen. Grouping of body segments into distinct regions is known as Tagmosis and the body regions are called Tagmata.

The Head

Insect collection is a source of recreation for many people and maybe a hobby for those who are interested in studying insects. Methods of collection and preservation of insects are the pre-requisite to studying the insects and their various internal and external organs. After collection, it becomes imperative to keep and preserve the insect specimens intact and safe for a longer time to further study the characters or to develop the insect collection museum. Let‘s have a look and do the different types methods of collection, and devices used for the collection and preservation of insects including immature stages in this practical session.

Collection

 The purposes of insect collection are:

To know the occurrence of a particular insect in a particular locality.

Taxonomic study of insects.

Identification of insects.

To study the bionomics and rearing of insects for various entomological experiments.

To develop the insect repository etc.

Introduction

Our agrarian economy is undergoing amazing changes as a result of the technological and digital revolutions, increased urbanisation, the unprecedented rise in middle income groups, rapidly changing consumer patterns and tastes, and most importantly, as a result of climate change and environmental degradation. As a result of these changes, agriculture now faces both new challenges and opportunities to improve in terms of productivity, economic reward, social justice and inclusivity, and ecological sustainability.

The counterfeiting problem has a significant influence on the agrochemical sector. Over the past few years, spurious agrochemical products have gained market dominance on a global scale.

Crops and trees can be protected from disease by applying pesticides at precisely scheduled intervals. It may only take a few grammes of the chemical to facilitate its distribution over the aerial parts of the plant, or to treat seeds or other propagating organs (tubers, bulbs, corns, etc.) or the soil in which plants will grow. Any chemical can be used in one of four different physical states: gas, solid, liquid, or solution. As a result, it is critical to employ the most efficient equipment to ensure a uniform deposit of the chemical on the target substrate with minimal material waste in the shortest amount of time and with the least amount of manpower.

A. Purchase

 • Avoid purchasing leaky containers, loose, unsealed, or broke bags.

 • Never purchase fungicide without proper/approved labels.

 • Purchase only what you need for a single application within the specified range, such as 100, 250, 500, or 1000 g/ml.

B. Storage

 • Only keep fungicide in original containers with unbroken seals.

 • Never transfer fungicide to another container.

 • Never store with food or feed.

 • Keep children and livestock out of reach.

 • Avoid exposing the fungicide to sunshine or moisture.

• Do not store herbicides alongside fungicides.

 • Avoid storing fungicide on your property.

Formulation Technology

An essential first step in any pesticide-based pest management procedure is choosing the right formulation. It’s a crucial managerial choice that affects the bottom line, client happiness, worker safety, and environmental quality. Knowing the characteristics of different formulations is important for both the supervisor and the applicator. The applicator is responsible for both application and mixing. Applicators come into direct touch with the substance, both diluted and concentrated. A basic, personal concern for one’s health and the health of others necessitates understanding the formulation’s safety features.

The effects of weeds, pests, and diseases result in the loss of between 20 40% of the world’s potential agricultural yield each year. By reducing crop loss from pest infestations, the use of pesticides can boost agricultural output by 25–50%. Only 25 to 30 percent of the area that is now being grown is protected by pesticides. Because domestic pesticide use is among the lowest in the world, there is significant room for expansion. India uses 0.6 kilogramme of pesticides per hectare compared to the global average of 3 kg per hectare. The use of crop protection products must be enhanced. There are now 1175 compounds accessible in the world, however only roughly 292 of them are registered in India.

Antipathogen Chemicals

Anti-pathogen chemicals are chemical substances that serve to slow the activity of pathogens such as fungi, bacteria, and nematodes.

Purpose of Using Chemicals in Plant Disease Management

The goal of application of chemicals in plant disease control are

• To form a toxic barrier between the pathogen and the host surface or tissue.

• To eliminate the pathogen from a specific place on the host, such as seed, leaves, roots, and so on.

Role of Chemicals’ in Plant Disease Management

• Reducing inoculum density or removing inoculum from the source of growth, multiplication, and survival.

• Pathogen inactivation or annihilation when it lands on the treated surface.

• Treatment of the diseased plant.

Drone

Drones are one of the most innovative new technologies to emerge from the fourth Industrial Revolution. Indian farms may be significantly impacted by drone use in pesticide spraying, hence government cooperation is required for allowing supporting legislative environment.

Advantages

The following are the key advantages of using drones for pesticide spraying:

• Improved agrochemical application efficiency and accuracy. Crop protection products (CPP) are not wasted as a result, which improves pest management and crop output.

• Considerable decrease in operator exposure risk during spray operations.

• Drone-assisted spraying has a field capacity that is nearly 20 times greater in comparison to manual spraying.

• Lower water consumption.

Farmers Must Always Get Genuine Products

Since its start, the pesticide industry has supported crop productivity and our agricultural economy. It was crucial in bringing about the Green Revolution. By protecting plants from pests and diseases, pesticides let India’s high yielding types and hybrids reach their full potential for productivity. The Integrated Pest Management (IPM) Programme of the Government of India, state governments, and state agricultural institutes is not complete without the use of pesticides. Farmers will receive value-added solutions from the industry via on-farm demonstrations and on-the-spot knowledge-sharing. The emphasis is on creating plans using chemicals for plant protection and attending to the farmers’ urgent requirements.

Roughly one-third of the food produced globally is lost or wasted. The India Agricultural Research Data Book from 2004 states that 30% of fruits and vegetables are wasted. Based on an estimated 150 million tonnes of fruit and vegetable output in India, 50 million tonnes of trash are produced annually.

The quality of fruits and vegetables starts to decline as soon as they are removed from their natural source of nutrients. Artificial ripening chemicals are used to speed up the harvesting process, but they also degrade the product and have long-term negative health impacts. Mangoes, for instance, mature rapidly once calcium carbonate is injected into them. Chemicals such as copper sulphate, rhodamine oxide, malachite green, and lethal carbide are frequently utilised to highlight the colour and freshness of vegetables.

India’s economic prosperity is reliant on the agriclimate. The nation confronts particular challenges in guaranteeing food security and optimising agricultural yield because of its large and varied landscape. Using fertilisers strategically and sensibly is one of the main reasons Indian agriculture is so successful. Fertilisers are essential for preserving the fertility of the soil, improving crop health, and satisfying the nation’s growing need for food security.

Ensuring Soil Fertility

India’s economy is mostly based on agriculture, with a sizable section of the populace working in the field.However, there are significant regional differences in India’s soil fertility, with certain parts missing essential nutrients for crop growth.

It is heartening to see that the Government of India has included the Agrochemicals Industry in the current list of 12 Champion Industries, owing to significant manufacturing for both domestic and foreign markets. Some areas require immediate attention in order to continue growing.

1. Being Independent of China: The Make in India programme should be enforced for many essential agrochemical intermediates, thus becoming China independent.Significant efforts should be made to make this a reality. A well planned, concentrated approach must be developed between the business sec tor and the GOI. Success should be seen within the following two to three years.It is important to emphasise that we can export domestically manufac tured agrochemical intermediates, thereby reducing certain countries’ reliance on China.The agrochemical business would benefit greatly from a level play ing field free of burdensome rules and restrictions, as many of them appear unreasonable.

By reducing losses from pests and diseases, the agrochemicals sector contributes significantly to raising agricultural output. In order to meet the challenges of feeding India’s growing population and bringing foreign exchange into the Indian exchequer through the export of high-quality agricultural products worldwide, the prudent use of crop protection chemicals promotes sustainable farm management and offers socioeconomic benefits. Nonetheless, most of the marginalised farmers who are forced to practise subsistence farming are able to produce only enough food to support their family.

Agrochemical Sector is Transforming

Over two lakh crores of India’s agricultural production—roughly 20% of overall production—are lost to pests and diseases. In order to safeguard farmers’ crops in this situation, agrochemicals might be quite important. Even though India uses very little agrochemicals domestically (less than 0.5 kg/ha), it is the world’s fourth-largest producer of agrochemicals.

n the post-COVID era, there is ample opportunity for agrochemicals to emerge as one of the key export sectors capitalising on changes in global supply chains. The government has already identified the agrochemicals industry as one of the 12 Champion sectors to watch, and by 2026, the agrochemicals market is projected to grow to a valuation of around $7.4 billion.

Introduction

The agrochemical sector has been critical in enhancing agricultural productivity and output. Let’s look at the challenges that the agrochemical sector is facing and how they might be solved to ensure a brighter future.

Opportunities

1. Increase in irrigated area: Every year, around 0.5 million hectares of irrigated land are added as a result of the government’s ongoing efforts to make water available for irrigation. This is anticipated to boost production and increase farmer income. As a result, agrochemical consumption is expected to rise.

2. Changing food and consumption trends: Changes in consumption patterns and demand for a wide range of fruits and vegetables may drive farmers to employ more modern agricultural practises in order to fetch a premium for such produce. This segment is predicted to result in a 2% to 3% increase in agrochemical consumption.

India, hitherto reliant on foreign help, is now one of the world’s top producers of food and exporters worldwide. With 330.53 Million Tonnes of foodgrain output predicted for 2022–2023, our nation is a far cry from the 1950s and 1960s. We still behind other developed nations, notwithstanding our gains in production. It is acknowledged that a number of issues prevent Indian agriculture from reaching its full potential. Small land holdings, insufficient irrigation, a lack of technological assistance, and difficult financing access are a few of these. Crop health, however, is a significant obstacle to Indian agriculture that frequently goes unnoticed.

Introduction

Plant pathogens can cause significant crop loss both pre- and post-harvest. Fungicides continue to plays an important role in controlling plant diseases caused by fungal pathogens. In the last 100 years, fungicides have evolved from a few simple inorganic compounds to multiple groups of organic compounds, from contact and multisite fungicides to systemic and site specific fungicides with curative properties have evolved. The introduction of new fungicides is an integral part of sustainable disease control in staple crops. The need for new and innovative fungicides is driven by resistance management, regulatory hurdles and changing farmer needs.

A problem in the 1970s was the emergence of pathogen strains that were resistant to chemical . Concerns from the public about the effects of agricultural pesticides generally on human health and the environment have grown in the 1980s . A number of pesticides have been deregistered, subject to limitations, or taken off the market as a consequence of this issue.

Because of perceptions rather than actual facts, the use of agricultural pesticides frequently raises serious public concerns. Concerns include the potential for human and domestic animal poisoning, contamination of livestock products, harmful effects on beneficial microorganisms like pest predators and pollinating bees, dangerous residue levels in foods made from sprayed crops, ecological disruption at the level of microorganisms, and the potential for water contamination with subsequent fish loss and residue buildup in groundwater.

Common Maintenance

 • Clean the exterior surface with a brush or cotton waste and plenty of water or kerosene oil.

 • Lubricate or lubricate the moving or rubbing surfaces of parts as needed.

 • Filter the chemical solution/fuel oil mixture as it is poured into the tanks. Make the caps or lids leak-proof by using gaskets.

 • Flush the equipment with clean water to clean the insides of containers, tubes, and nozzles.

Care and Maintenance of Hand Sprayer & Duster

• Dusters should be made of dry and sieved dust.

 • Grease the duster gear box once a month.

 • Clean the duster after use by removing all dust from the hopper.

 • Oil the sprayer’s cup and bucket washers on a regular basis.

 • After completing the day’s work, cleanse the spray tank discharge lines and nozzles with clean water.

Combination Fungicides

Composite or combination fungicides are made up of two or more active ingredients. The active ingredients of combination fungicides often come from two distinct chemical groups. Combination fungicide products offer an optimized combination of two or more active ingredients and the convenience of one product. Combination fungicides boost each treatment’s efficacy and extend its range of action. Combination products significantly lower pathogen populations by targeting numerous pathogens with a single treatment. Longer periods of control are achieved by further reducing pathogen populations with increased potency. Combinations of fungicides can decrease the selection of pathogen strains resistant to specific fungicides and restrict exposure to each active component.

Strobilurins are a group of compounds used as fungicides in agriculture. They belong to the larger group of QoI inhibitors that inhibit the respiratory chain at the complex III level.Common strobilurins include azoxystrobin, cresoxime methyl, picoxystrobin, fluoxastrobin, oryzastrobin, dimoxystrobin, pyraclostrobin, and trifloxystrobin.Strobilurin represents an important development of fungal-based fungicides and is derived from the fungus Strobilurus tenacellus.They have an inhibitory effect on other fungi and reduce nutrient competition.They inhibit mitochondrial electron transport, disrupt energy metabolism, and prevent target fungal growth. Strobilurin is the wonder fungicide ever developed with a new MOA and mobility that qualify it as a unique new generation of fungicides controlling different classes of pathogens.

The process for discovering new fungicides has evolved throughout time. Over the past 20 years, a number of novel fungicides with various chemical activity have been created, after the age of site-specific systemic fungicides and multisite broad-spectrum fungicides. Compared to earlier chemicals, they are utilised at considerably lower dosages, making them more ecologically friendly.The most significant of them is called strobilurin (QoI), which is derived from the wild Strobilurus tenacellus fungus. The oxazolidinediones (phaoxadone), phenoxyquinolines (quinoxifene), anilinopyrimidines (cyprodinil, pyrimethanil), and valinamide (iprovalicarb, benchocarb), manderamide (mandipropamide), and phenylpyrrole (fenpicroyl, fludioxonil) are other significant fungicides that were introduced in the last ten years to control a variety of diseases. These substances have distinct molecular structures and modes of action.

Fungicides are only allowed after years of intensive testing for effectiveness against a variety of plant plant. When a disease is stated on the label of a fungicide, it can be presumed that the active ingredient inhibits pathogen growth and limits the occurrence and spread of disease within acceptable levels of control. Fungicides do not always perform as predicted in practice. Not because the active ingredient is useless, but because of other factors that influence its performance. Consider everything from light and temperature to humidity and pH, and remember that all of these variables affect the active ingredients. Find information on these and other topics that can help you succeed in disease control below.

1. Identification: The most crucial first step towards successful disease control is correctly recognising the condition. Failure to diagnose disease can lead to misplaced or inappropriately scheduled controls.

Combining two or more pesticides in a tank saves time and labour while also lowering equipment and application costs. However, the effectiveness of one or more products may change in some circumstances. Two or more pesticides are compatible if they may be mixed and sprayed together without changing the efficacy, physical and chemical qualities of the mixture, or harming unwanted application locations. Chemicals are considered incompatible when issues arise when more than one product are mixed..

Incompatibility

Incompatibility occurs when a pesticide is unable to be adequately blended to generate a homogenous solution or suspension. Flakes, crystals, or greasy masses, as well as significant separation, are not acceptable. Incompatible mixes like this can clog application equipment and hinder the even distribution of the active ingredient in the spray tank. This inhibits pesticides from being applied properly.

Pesticide poisoning occurs when a pesticide penetrates the body and disrupts its essential systems. Symptoms can appear anywhere from a half hour to 24 hours following exposure. The common symptoms and indicators of pesticide poisoning are:

Initial symptoms may include

First Aid

First aid is the preliminary care of a person who has been exposed to pesticides before getting proper medical attention. The initial step is to remove the person from the source of the exposure by removing pesticide from their skin, removing contaminated clothing, or transporting them to fresh air. Be careful not to contaminate oneself throughout this process.

Pesticide on the Skin

• Remove any contaminated clothes.

 • Drench clothing and skin with plenty of water.

• Clean hair and skin with soap and water.

• Dry the victim and wrap them in clean clothes.

• Prevent the victim from being chilly or overheated.

Chemotherapy is the procedure of treating a sick or infected plant using chemicals to kill the fungus. Chemotherapy has proven successful in very few circumstances. For example, plants have been treated with antibiotics to minimise the severity of “lethal yellowing” of palm trees caused by Phytoplasma and the decline of pears. Likewise, fungicides have been used to elm trees to mitigate the effects of Ophiostoma ulmi and O? neo-ulmi, the causative agents of Dutch elm disease. The chemotherapy drugs must, however, always be given repeatedly. Systemic fungicides like sterol biosynthesis inhibitors (SBIS), which partially penetrate plant tissues, eradicate recent infestations.

Chemotherapeutic fungicides are a class of systemic fungicides that have some plant mobility. They are capable of eliminating diseases even in parts of the plant that were not exposed to the chemicals. Unfortunately, pathogens develop resistance to systemic fungicides because they are site-specific

Appropriate selection of fungicides and application at appropriate doses and times are of great importance in the management of crop diseases. A basic requirement of the application method is to get the fungicide to a location where the active ingredient prevents fungal damage to the plant. The fungicidal application varies according to the nature of the host part diseased and nature of survival and spread of the pathogen. The method which are commonly adopted in the application of the fungicides are discussed.

1. Foliar or vegetative application

2. Soil application

3. Seed treatment

Mode of Action of Fungicides

Most fungicides function outside of the host, which is referred to as “protection.” A fungicide that acts outside of the host is referred to as a “protectant fungicide.” This category includes the majority of older fungicides applied on leaves and fruit. “Therapy” refers to chemical action within the host. Fungicides, for example, are locally systemic and enter the plant at the point of deposition. Several triazole fungicides have several days of therapeutic action against wheat leaf rust and also inhibit the development of viable spores (spores that can grow).

The majority of protectant fungicides are relatively stable on their own. They are generally insoluble in water and resist removal or chemical alteration by water, but they must be toxic to fungus.

Pesticides are any chemical or mixture intended for use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant as well as any substance or mixture meant for preventing, getting rid of, repelling, or controlling pests. Agricultural pests include insects, weeds, fungi, bacteria, viruses, nematodes, rodents, and mollusks. The term pesticide, which refers to these pests and cide, which meaning “to kill.” Insecticides, fungicides, bactericides, weed killers, molluscicides, rodenticides, nematicides, and other types of pesticides can be classed as pesticides. Every manufacturer of pesticides as well as companies with CIB & RC registration must provide all scientific data on bio-ecacy, toxicity, residues, and safe waiting periods that has been obtained via laboratory research.

Botanicals

Botanicals play a significant role in the development of a disease management approach that is both ecologically sound and acceptable to the environment. Plant products have been found to have fungicidal, bactericidal, and antiviral properties. It is known that 346 plant species have fungicidal, 92 have bactericidal, and 90 have antiviral properties. This proves conclusively that the plant kingdom is home to a sizable stockpile of chemicals that can control a range of plant diseases. Because many of them employ many modes of action and plant compounds are safer for species other than the targeted, there is also less chance of resistance developing.Plants and plant products known as botanicals are safer for protecting plants against pathogens.

Antiviral Factor (AVF)

When an incompatible virus enters the host, resistance to viral diseases is seen. A number of substances, including polyacrylic acid, aspirin, salicylic acid, benzoic acid, and other growth regulators, including Indole acetic acid (IAA), 2, 4-D, Benzyl amino-in (3P), and ethylene, cause resistance to viral diseases. For each of these situations, certain plant compounds have also been identified to cause the development of novel proteins in plant tissues. They are referred to as “antiviral factors.” Healthy plants lack these antiviral components. They are only created once the host has been infected by the virus. These post-infectional substances resemble “phytoalexins.”

Introduction

• Nematicides are chemically synthesized products that kill or adversely affect nematodes.

• These products can have a nematicidal or nemastatic effect on nematodes.

• Nematicidal compounds are highly toxic and kill exposed nematodes.

• Nemastatic compounds do not kill nematodes but interfere with the migration of nematodes towards the roots of the host plant or delay nematode hatching.

• Many nematicides are broad spectrum, volatile, soil fumigant.

• They are not only active against nematodes, but also insects, fungi, bacteria, weed seeds and almost everything else that lives on the ground.

Introduction

The compounds produced one kind of microbe that are poisonous to another type of microbes are known as antibiotics. Actinomycetous bacteria and certain fungi are the primary producers of antibiotics. Antibiotics have highly complicated chemical makeups and formulations, which are frequently unknown. To combat plant diseases, however, antibiotics were first introduced in 1950. Typically, plants absorb and then move systemically internal antibiotics used for managing plant diseases. Usually, they operate on the host or the pathogen directly or after going through transformation to control plant diseases. In addition to acting as eradicators, they also serve as protectors and offer resistance to the invasion of viruses, and their impact lasts for a while.

What is Fungicide?

The term fungicide is derived from two Latin words, fungus and caedo. The word ‘caedo’ literally means ‘to kill.’ As a result, a fungicide is any agent or chemical that has the power to kill the fungus. Physical agents such as ultraviolet light and heat should also be called fungicides, according to this definition. However, in ordinary use, the term exclusively refers to chemicals. As a result, fungicide is a chemical that can kill fungi.

What is Fungistat?

Certain chemicals do not kill fungal infections. However, they only temporarily stop the fungus’s growth. Fungistat refers to these compounds, while fungistatis refers to the phenomena of temporarily inhibiting fungal growth.

What is Antisporulent?

Pesticide Authorities

Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee

In India, the central pesticide board and registration committee oversee the import, production, sale, transportation, distribution, and use of insecticides. Pesticides in India are regulated by the following two government organisations Central Insecticides Board and Registration Committee CIBRC and Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (FSSAI ).

Central Insecticide Board (CIB)

• The Central Insecticides Board advises the central and state governments on technical issues arising from the administration of this act, as well as carrying out the other tasks given to it by or under this act.

What are Pesticides?

Pesticides are essential tools for controlling harmful and invasive pests in agriculture, forestry, and the landscape. Pesticides are any substances used to prevent, eliminate, repel, attract, or diminish pest organisms. Pesticides that are well-known include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and rodenticides. Growth regulators, plant defoliants, surface disinfectants, and several swimming pool chemicals are among the others. Insecticides include pesticides (effective against insects), herbicides (effective against certain plants), rodenticides (effective against rats), bactericides (effective against bacteria), fungicides (effective against fungi) and larvicides (effective against larvae).

Fungicides have been used to manage plant diseases since ancient times. The use of sulphur as a purifying agent is documented in the Old Testament, Homeric poems published about the eighth century B.C., Vedic literature (1500-500 B.C.), Buddhist literature, Surpala’s Vrksayurveda (800 A.D.), and other texts. Chemicals’ importance as fungicides was recognised only when fungus were clearly identified as a cause of plant diseases.

Over the previous two centuries, a wealth of information on fungicides has collected, owing primarily to advances in fungicidal chemical expertise. Aside from chemical control, other alternative approaches of disease control have earned appropriate respect throughout this period. However, in today’s modern agricultural system, fungicides play an important role in disease management and are useful in increasing crop output by reducing the attack of hazardous plant pathogens.

Introduction

Fungicides continue to be crucial instruments to protect yield and quality since plant diseases can result in considerable crop losses both before and after harvest. In the fight against plant pathogen-caused crop diseases, chemicals are crucial. Chemicals occur in a variety of forms, such as those that kill bacteria, fungus, and nematodes (bactericides, fungicides, and nematicides). These substances need to be handled carefully while battling plant diseases. Significant pre- and post-harvest crop losses can be brought on by fungal infections during transportation and storage. After host resistance, fungicides are regarded as the second line of defence in the struggle against plant diseases.

The term “Hepatology” is derived from the Greek words “hepatikos” and “logia” meaning liver and study respectively. It is the branch of medicine dealing with the study of structure, function, diseases and abnormalities of the liver, gall bladder, and biliary tree. Liver/hepatic diseases in companion pets vary from multifactorial hepatitis (acute and chronic), cirrhosis, portosystemic shunt, copper storage disease, hepatic lipidosis, and hepatic neoplasm to fulminant hepatic failure. The etiology of liver diseases also varies from infection, auto-immune, metabolic to genetic factors. The hepatic disorders are quite common in canines and felines. Moreover, the diagnosis of liver malfunctioning is loosely given in pet practice without any supportive evidence.

Eye is a very sensitive, delicate and unique organ. Its function may be affected with wide range of etiologies ranging from trauma, local and systemic infections, metabolic diseases to vision defects warranting an early and accurate diagnosis employing complete history, detailed ocular examination and or specialized diagnostic techniques such as Schirmer Tear Test (STT), Fluorescence Test, Ophthalmoscopy, Tonometry, Pachymetry, Retinoscopy and Gonioscopy etc.

Instruments for Ophthalmic Examination

•             Finn off Transilluminator

 •            Pen torch

 •            Direct Ophthalmoscope

 •            Indirect fundoscopic lens (2.2 diopter lens)

 •            Schirmer tear test strips

 •            Fluorescein strips

 •            Tonometer

Clinical diagnostic techniques in neurology are generally employed to confirm the existence of neurological disorder and also to localize the lesion.

Equipment/Instruments for Neurological Examination

 •            Reflex hammer.

 •            Cotton tip applicator.

 •            Pen torch light or transilluminator.

 •            Cotton balls.

 •            Haemostats.

 •            Lens.

Anesthesia/ Sedative

• Generally no anesthetic/ sedative is needed for neurological examination.

Place of Neurological Examination

Nephrology

Nephritis and renal calculi are the two major problems leading to renal failure in canine and feline nephrology. Chronic renal failure may occur at any age but it is more common in geriatric dogs. Congenital renal diseases may also lead to renal failure at any age. Chronic renal disease or chronic renal failure is a progressive deteriorating condition as compensatory mechanism (glomerular hypertension and hyper filtration) further deteriorate the condition. Hence chronic renal disease remains lifelong. For quality life, an early diagnosis of renal failure is very important. The following techniques are used to diagnose chronic renal failure.

Diseases of gastro-intestinal tract are very common in dogs and cats. Gastro intestinal tract starts from mouth to anus. The first step in making diagnosis of gastro-intestinal disease is to localize the problem. Whether it is buccal cavity, esophagus, stomach, or intestines. Cursory history for seemingly simple complaint like vomiting, anorexia or loose feces may be unrewarding because gastrointestinal diseases may be primary (concerning with only gastro intestinal tract and its functions) or secondary (due to underlying disease/ disorder of organs other than gastro-intestinal tract). Therefore, for ascertaining the cause of gastrointestinal signs (anorexia, nausea, vomiting, regurgitation, constipation, loose feces, bloody feces), a thorough examination of all body systems is more logical. As with other body systems, a comprehensive systematic approach is needed for diagnosing diseases of gastro-intestinal tract also.

Otology is the branch of medicine concerned with the study of the ear and its diseases. Ear diseases in canines have multiple etiology varying from allergies (food or environmental), ectoparasites, infections (bacteria, malassazia, fungus), endocrine disorders, immunological disorders (autoimmune diseases), foreign material, neoplasms to keratinization disorders. For rational management, correct diagnosis is a pre-requisite. Diagnostic techniques in otology include history, clinical examination including ear canal palpation and visual inspection of ears, imaging (otoscopy, radiography, CT scan, MRI, and ultrasonography) and cytological evaluation of otic contents/ discharge.

The prevalence of skin diseases in dogs is high throughout the world. Skin diseases are one of the main clinical complaint with which dogs and cats are presented at clinics. Skin diseases are numerous and have wide range of underlying etiology ranging from non-specific cause, infections (bacterial, viral, fungal. yeast), hormonal, nutritional to immunological causes. Most of the skin diseases are clinically manifested with focal or diffuse alopecia, itching, papules, pustules, erythema, scaling, scabs, lumps, unpleasant smell, rashes, urticarial plaques, dandruff, hot spots or excessive licking (Figure62) making the straight forward diagnosis a difficult task especially in dogs and cats with chronic dermatological disease.

Last few decades have witnessed an increasing number of pets attending clinics/hospitals for cardiac care because of changed life style of owners as well as pets, more awareness of the owners and an increase in number of veterinary medical specialist with better diagnostic facilities. Cardiac failure and cardiac arrest are the two important outcome of cardiac diseases with variable treatment result. Heart functioning is affected not only in primary diseases of heart but also in diseases of organs other than the heart. Without correct diagnosis of cardiac abnormalities, treatment may be futile with a fatal outcome. Nowadays diagnosis of cardiac abnormalities is facilitated with the aid of modern diagnostic technology.