eChapters

4.1. Introduction
The food is the main factor known to affect the health of an individual. By interference in the protein synthesis, function and metabolites and alteration in genome expression, the healthy condition must be altered to diseased condition. Side by side we can say that the dietary component directly or indirectly modulates the molecular fingerprint and understanding of which is dealt with nutrigenomics. So, by modulation of a particular gene for a specific disease by nutrition, we can prevent the specific disease and promote the health of a population. Consuming fruits and vegetables on a regular basis has been linked to better health outcomes and diminution of several chronic or life style linked diseases.
Concept of Nutritional Genomics
After completion of human genome sequencing, the unique term “Nutritional genomics” tends to replace the old term “Nutrient-gene interaction”. It has been stated that so many polymorphism can influence protein structure and function. There are several regulatory sites where nutrients can impact the flow of genetic information. The two components of the nutritional genomics field are nutrigenomics, which studies how dietary components interact with the genome to regulate changes in proteins and other metabolism, and nutrigenetics, which determines how dietary components affect genetic variations. (Farhud et al., 2010). Nutrients are as environmental influences can interact with genetic material. It is commonly known that DNA metabolism and repair require a range of dietary elements that serve as cofactors or substrates in metabolic pathways. However, little is known about how cofactors and/or micronutrient excess or deficiency affect the accuracy of DNA replication and repair (Caroline and Fenech, 2008). The response to a particular nutrient, which is determined by the individual genotype, must also be taken into consideration, even though the nutrients can influence the development of a particular phenotypic.

Bael is one of the oldest and nutritional fruits of India (John and Stevenson, 1979). The tree is very hardy and thrives in almost all types of soil and climate. The ripe fruits of bael are rich in protein, fat, minerals, riboflavin, carotene, thiamine, niacin and vitamin C. The ripe fruit is lucrative while unripe fruit is prescribed for diarrhoea and dysentery (Mitra 1999, Roy, 1996, Singh and Ali, 1992, Singh, 2000). The marmelos in is most probably the therapeutically active principle of bael fruits.

18.1.1 Centre of diversity

The Bael tree has its origin from Eastern Ghats and central India. Its indigenous to Indian subcontinent and mainly found in tropical and subtropical regions. Even though it is native to India, it is found throughout Southeast Asia (Neeraj et al., 2017). The tree is also found as a wild tree, in lower ranges of Himalayas up to an elevation of 500 meters. Bael is also found growing along foothills of Himalayas, Uttaranchal, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and the Deccan Plateau and along the east coast (Sharma et al., 2007).

Different basic as well as advanced laboratory equipment need to be used in a laboratory while conducting experiments. Many of them like pH meter, laminar air-flow hood, viscometer, thermometer, magnetic stirrer, microwave ovens, incubators, sand-bath, water-bath, oil-bath, etc. are the basic and simple equipment which require to be used routinely while conducting experiments in a laboratory. However, basic knowledge of their operation, handling procedure, when to be used, how to be used, and more importantly what not to be done with it, etc. are essential for keeping them in serviceable condition as well as for the accuracy/precision in their operation. In this chapter, we will discuss about some of the routinely used laboratory equipment along, while some other sophisticated equipment will be discussed in other chapters.

pH Meter

A pH meter measures exactly the H+ concentration of a solution; thus indicates acidity or alkalinity of a solution with greater precision. Actually, it measures the difference in electrical potential between a pH electrode and a reference electrode, and display the results converted into the corresponding pH value. Electrode is the key part (rod-like structure, usually made of glass) of a pH meter, having a bulb at the bottom containing a sensor. The pH meters range from simple and inexpensive pen-like devices (portable/pocket pH meter) to complex and expensive laboratory instruments with computer interface (Figure 5.1).

Frequent calibration of a pH meter using the solutions of known pH (standard solution of pH 4.01, 7.00, 10.01, Figure 5.2), generally before each use, ensures the accuracy of the instrument. For very precise work the pH meter should be calibrated before each measurement. For normal use calibration should be performed at the beginning of each day. This is necessary because the glass electrode does not give a reproducible measurement over a longer period of time.

C - enamel can: The sulphur resistant lacquer is golden coloured and the can coated with it are called C-enamel can or sulphure resistant can, used for packing non acid products (Plate 35).

CA storage: Storage of commodities under gaseous atmosphere like gas storage, where the composition of atmosphere is controlled accurately. MA and CA differ only in degree of control and CA is more exact. These storage methods in combination with refrigeration markedly enhance storage life of fruit and vegetables (Plate 36).

7.1 Introduction

The entire amount of water that is diverted at the canal head regulator does not reach at the field for use of irrigation. Major amount of it is lost on way during its movement in the canal systems. During the passage of water from main canal to outlet at the head of the water course, water may be lost either by evaporation from the surface or by seepage through the peripheries of the channel. These losses are sometimes very high, and may go up to 50 % of the total water diverted into the main canal. Evaporation losses are low and may go to a maximum of about 7 percent of total losses. The major loss of water in the conveyance system is the seepage loss. Seepage loss depends on the channel geometry and evaporation loss is proportional to the area of free surface. In determining the designed channel capacity, a provision of these water losses must be made. The provision for the water lost in the watercourses and in the field however, already made in the outlet discharge factor, and hence no extra provision is made on that account. However, excluding the above two losses, there is operational loss which when added to the evaporation and seepage losses, the total losses goes up the maximum 50 percent level. The operational loss includes spillage, over-toping, leakage through rodent holes, dead storage, initial infiltration and evapotranspiration from the vegetation along the watercourse. Evaporation and seepage losses of the canals are discussed below.

Plant nutrients are drawn up from soil for growth and development. There are more than 90 elements present in the soil. According to the criteria of Essentiality of Nutrients for plant growth, proposed by Arnon and Stout in 1952, only 16 are considered to be essential for plant growth. Out of these, C (Carbon), H (Hydrogen), O (Oxgen), N (Nitrogen), P (Phosphorus), K (Potassium), Ca (Calcium), Mg (Magnesium) and S (Sulfur) are called Macronutrients (required in large quantities) and the remaining 7 elements - Fe (Iron), Mn (Manganese), Cu (Copper), Zn (Zinc), B (Boran), Mo and Cl are called Micronutrients or trace elements (required only in very small quantities). Among the macro elements - N, P and K are called Fertiliser elements or primary nutrients as they are most often applied in the form of synthetic or mineral fertilisers, and Ca, Mg and S are called secondary elements which are applied in smaller quantities than primary nutrients and required subsequent to primary nutrients.

SYNOPSIS

We lag in nutritional awareness. The therapeutic values of plant foods, such as vegetables, fruits, grains, legumes, nuts, seeds, herbs, spices and other foods like dairy products, fluids and meats are to be brought to light. The values of important nutrients, may lead to the basis for nutritional education lacking at present. There is need to bring awareness and add to the knowledge of the younger generation. A food is something that provides nutrients. Nutrients are substances that provide: energy for activity, growth, and all functions of the body such as breathing, digesting food, and keeping warm; materials for the growth and repair of the body, and for keeping the immune system healthy.

10.2. Breeding Objectives 10.2.1. Tomato • To develop early , high yielding and consumer preference varieties / hybrids. • Large round fruit with adequate firmness and shelf-life, uniform fruit sizes shape, red colour and freedom from external blemishes or abnormalities for fresh market. • Large fruit size, high fruit quality and continuous production for home garden tomatoes. • Deep, uniformly red coloured tomatoes , pH below 4.4, high total soluble solid (4.5-7) and high alcohol solids (AIS) in processing tomatoes. • To evolve varieties / hybrid resistant to diseases like fusarium wilt, verticillum wilt, late blight, early blight, septoria leaf spot, anthracnose, bacterial wilt, bacterial canker and tomato leaf curl virus. • To develop varieties/ hybrids resistant to root-knot nematodes. • To breed varieties/ hybrids suitable for abiotic stresses like low Day (K10o C) and high temperatures (day 35+2o C) excess and moisture deficient, salt etc. • To develop varieties/ hybrids for prolonged storage and transportation

Women constitute 50% of our population. Their contribution to farming needs no emphasis as they are integral part of it. Women have developed farming in our country and contributed immensely for growth and maintenance of agriculture as a whole. But majority of them are not fully aware of sustainable agriculture in scientific terms although they practice it. Surveys and observations reveal that women are in favor of traditional agriculture and feel that traditional farming is more sustainable than the present one.

Protected cultivation is a specialized agricultural system in which a certain control of the soil–climate ecosystem is exercised modifying its conditions (soil, temperature, solar radiation, wind, humidity and air composition). Plants are cultivated by means of these techniques modifying their natural environment to prolong the harvesting period, alter the conventional cropping cycles, increase yields, improve product quality, stabilize production and provide products when open field cultivation is limited (Wittwer and Castilla, 1995). It is the most contemporary approach to produce mainly, horticultural crops qualitatively and quantitatively and has spread extensively the world over in the last few decades. Protected cultivation also known as controlled environment agriculture (CEA) is highly productive, conservative of water and land and also protective of the environment (Jensen, 2002). Protected cultivation is now becoming popular in Kerala experiencing humid tropical climate with the adoption of locally suitable green house technologies.

Protected cultivation has rapidly expanded in many regions across the globe as early as 1960, when plastics were introduced/used in agriculture and subsequently during 1970’s, when the rise in oil prices resulted in increase of energy costs. About 115 countries in the world are into greenhouse vegetable production commercially (Sabir and Singh, 2013). The world scenario shows the area under protected cultivation to be nearly 6,23,302 ha. while total estimated world greenhouse vegetable production area is 4,02,981 ha. Of the total world greenhouse vegetable area, soilless/hydroponic culture systems account for 95,000 ha (Hickman, 2011).

The advent of protected cultivation technology in India materialized during the early nineties, post globalization. In India, area under protected cultivation is presently around 25,000 ha while the greenhouse vegetable cultivation area is about 2,000 ha. Faced with constraints of land holdings, rapid urbanization, declining crop production, declining biodiversity and ever increasing population, demand for food, especially vegetables has increased manifold and protected cultivation has offered a new dimension to produce more in a limited area. Today Dutch protected cultivation is one of the most intensive farming systems in the world with high levels of output by using the latest technologies (Goncharova, 2004).

Introduction

Shaping machine, shaping machine is a heavy commercial machine used for generating flat surfaces on the workpiece as per the requirement. It is specifically designed to give the desired shape to the workpiece which can be flat, horizontal, or vertical as per the requirement.

The shaper machine is a reciprocating type of machine (that is, the machine that converts the rotatory motion into the linear motion) in which the tool reciprocates with the forward and backward stroke removing the metal form of metal chips and turning the Metal workpiece into the desired shape.

1.1 Carbohydrates Biochemistry
Carbohydrates are essential for life, both in plants and in animals. They are organic chemical compounds made of C, H, and O. These elements get arranged in different ways so that several simple, and stored complex compounds (starch in plants and glycogen in animals) are available in abundance on the Earth. They are involved in enormous biological and nonbiological functions. Their biological functions, found in all living things, are the chief energy source for men and animals, even for herbivorous fishlike carp and rohu fingerlings. Carbohydrates are also essential structural components like nucleic acids, containing genetic information. One must recognize the protective function in cells, plants, and human health management. Even bacteria form a glycocalyx and biofilm for protection. Knowledge about their involvement in blood groups helped to identify universal donors, universal recipients, and genuine donors for the recipient to save a life. Carbohydrates are found as a storage structure for energy in emergency conditions.
Upon combustion, they yield carbon dioxide and water. Autotrophs (plants) synthesize them from carbon dioxide and water to grow, reproduce, and store, but heterotrophs (humans and other animals) use them, too. In plants, they occur as fibers, supporting structures, and simple sugars. The plant carbohydrates are used for preparing adhesives, fermentation, foods, and papers. Cotton fibers are used to make clothes to cover the body and protect humans and animals against adverse climatic conditions.

Therapeutic Aspects of Drug-nutrient Interactions
Drug-nutrient interactions are expressed as physical, chemical, and pathophysiological relationships between a drug and a nutrient. This reaction is multifactorial. The drug has the potential ability to interact with nutrients which may lead to a reduction or enhancement of therapeutic efficacy, nutritional risk, and drug toxicity. Even such interactions lead to the discontinuation of drug therapy. But these kinds of interactions vary from person to person. Infants and children are the most vulnerable group in this concern as they are in the developmental phase where there is a lack of proper drug-metabolizing enzymes and inefficient renal function. Generally, DNIs signify negative impacts on human health but sometimes these interactions work in a positive way by reducing irritation in the GI tract or by increasing the absorption of drugs. Proper updated knowledge about DNIs is important for the appliance of diet therapy simultaneously with drug therapy as both of these are important strategies to manage or treat public health issues (Table 10.1., Table 10.2.).

1. Which period is known as the ‘operation flood era’?

  a) 1971 and 1996     b) 1978 and 1999

  c) 1969 and 1974    d) 1974 and 1978

 2. In which year Indian government launched ‘operation flood program’?

   a) 1970     b) 1950

 c) 1960   d) 1972

 3. Which is the largest milk producer in the world?

   a) China   b) Germany

 c) Russia   d) India

 4.  ‘White Revolution’ in concerned with .........

   a) Egg production   b) Meat production

 c) Grain production  d) Milk production

Introduction 
Agricultural extension systems are vital in bridging the gap between research and practical application by farming communities. By providing farmers with access to the latest technologies, practices, and knowledge, these services help improve crop yields, optimize resource use, and promote sustainability. Beyond just technical advice, agricultural extension often involves helping farmers adapt to new market trends, climate changes, and government policies. Extension agents typically work directly with farmers through meetings, oneon- one consultations, and community-based demonstrations. Dr. Rajendra Prasad Central Agricultural University, originally known as Rajendra Agricultural University, was established as India’s first Imperial Agriculture Research Institute. The foundation stone was laid by Lord Curzon on April 1, 1905, with financial support from American philanthropist Henry Phipps, Jr. Located in Pusa, Bihar. It is an Institute of National Importance. The University focuses on teaching, research, and extension, with the Directorate of Extension Education founded in 1977. This Directorate bridges the gap between technology generation and dissemination by coordinating with the State Department of Agriculture, ICAR, and other research and training institutes. It aims to deliver the latest agricultural information to farmers through its colleges and Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs), as well as plan and monitor extension activities based on research results. Public spending on Agricultural extension is one of the key policy instruments of the government to provide growth and alleviate property in rural areas. A comprehensive analysis of farming systems is essential to identify areas that need training, highlight technology gaps, address the adoption gap, and recognize production constraints. The goal is to develop and showcase alternative sustainable farming practices that enhance farmers’ productivity and profitability while conserving biodiversity and improving environmental health. Additionally, farmers should be connected to the rapidly evolving global market by providing them with relevant information and guidance to help them adapt to new opportunities and challenges.

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Fenugreek is one of the oldest cultivated spice crops of the world and grown for its medicinal value and forage in India, Western Asia and Nile valley since remote antiquity. In Egypt, it has been cultivated since 1000 BC and is part of the Indian diet for over 3000 years. Fenugreek is used as an important component of holy smoke in Egyptian incense. It is found growing wild in parts of northern India and cultivated all over the subcontinent for its green leaves and seeds. Fenugreek is a native of south-eastern Europe and Western Asia.  India is also said to be a native of fenugreek (Shanmugavelu et al., 2002) and found growing wild in Kashmir, Punjab and upper Gangetic plains.

Introduction

India has the distinction of being the largest producer of pulses in the world. Among the important pulse crops cultivated in the country are: chickpea, pigeonpea, lentil, mungbean, urdbean, fieldpea, rajmash and lathyrus. The pulse crops occupied an area of 22.85 million ha with a total production of 13.07 million tones and average productivity of 572 kg/ha. Being a high protein grain, pulses have special status in the diet, particularly for vegetarian population. Apart from being a good source of protein, they are also good source of energy, essential amino acids and vitamins in the daily diets of the people, especially of low-income group. Pulses have importance in sustainable agriculture by way of fixing atmospheric nitrogen in the soil.But with intensification of agriculture and introduction of irrigation and other facilities the area and production under pulses is declining so much so that per caput availability of pulses has declined from 69 g day-1 to about  36 g day^-1.

Introduction

The antibiotics are low molecular weight natural, semi-synthetic, or synthetic substance that kills or slows the growth of germs while causing little or no harm to the host is considered an antimicrobial (Walsh, 2000). Antibiotics are the type of medicine produced by some microorganisms that kill or slow the growth of other microorganisms. It includes any of a large group of chemical substances, as penicillin or streptomycin, produced by various microorganisms and fungi, having the capacity in dilute solutions to inhibit the growth of or to destroy bacteria and other microorganisms, used chiefly in the treatment of infectious diseases (De Vetten et al., 2003). However today, a large number of bacteria are resistant to various antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance occurs when a bacterium becomes able to survive and multiply despite the presence of an antibiotic that would normally control or kill it. In other words, the bacteria become “resistant” and continue to grow even at therapeutic levels of the antibiotic. While antibiotic resistance is a natural phenomenon, it is accelerated by the selective pressure exerted when an antibiotic is used. Bacteria that are naturally resistant to the antibiotic have a better chance of survival compared to those that are susceptible. As the susceptible bacteria are killed or inhibited, resistant strains are favored and continue to thrive (Holme et al., 2006). Some resistance arises without human influence, as bacteria can naturally produce antibiotics against other microorganisms, resulting in a low-level, natural selection for antibiotic resistance. However, the current surge in antibiotic resistant bacteria is largely attributed to the overuse and misuse of antibiotics. One of the main issues facing public health is antimicrobial resistance, particularly in developing nations where access to and use of medications are easier than in developed nations, leading to a disproportionately higher rate of inappropriate antibiotic use and higher resistance levels (Ganguly et al., 2011). Antimicrobial resistance will make it more difficult to control infections in the community and make health care services less effective (Bhatia et al., 2010). It is well known that India has one of the highest rates of infectious disease burdens in the world, and that the country’s high rates of malnutrition and inadequate sanitation make these circumstances worse (http://www. resistancestrategies.org/wpcontent/uploads/2011/03/Indiareport).

Abstract

Microbial inoculants are low cost inputs with high benefits in agriculture. Solid carrier based (peat or lignite) inoculants are used in most tropical countries. The carrier based inoculants have short shelf life, are liable to have high contaminants and have shown inconsistent field performance. In recent years, special liquid formulations containing not only the desired microorganisms and their nutrients but also added cell protectants or chemicals that promote formation of resting spores or cysts have been developed. The liquid formulations have longer shelf-life (12 months at room temperature) and are also more tolerant to adverse conditions encountered in storage. Liquid Rhizobium biofertilizers enhanced the soybean crop yields in the United States of America, Brazil, Europe and Asia over carrier based inoculants.

Q.1 Informations available on an auxiliary variable X which is highly correlated with the study variable y, can be utilized in improving the sampling design for the study variable y.

Q.2 Information on auxiliary variable X can be used for stratification of population for the study character y.