eChapters

1. The soils best suited for leafy vegetables are:

a) Clayey soils

c) Sandy soils

b) Well drained loamy soils

 d) Any type of soil 

2. How long does itgenerally take for leafy vegetables to grow?

a) 35-50 days after sowing

 b) 100-120 days after sowing  

c) 90-95 days after sowing

 d) 50-60 days after sowing   

1 What is the best time to sow onion seeds in Northern Hilly regions?

 a) January to February b)  March to April

 c) May to June  d) September to November

 2 Which type of soil is best for onion cultivation?

 a) Sandy loam    b)  Clay loam

 c) Alluvial soil  d) Both a and b

 3 What should be the pH range for onion cultivation?

 a) 4.4-5.0    b)  5.5-6.5

 c) 6.0-7.5    d)  6.5-7.5

1. What is the main negative impact of physiological disorders on root crops?

a) Deterioration of quality and visual characteristics

 b) Nutritional imbalance

 c) Decrease in yield

 d) None of these

2. Forking is a common physiological disorder of which root crop?

a) Radish

c) Beetroot

b) Carrot

 d) Turnip

1 Which soil is most suitable for bottle gourd cultivation?

 a) Sandy loam soils. b) Clayey soil

 c) Clayey loam soil d) Silt loam soil

 2 The ideal pHof soil for growing bottle gourdis?

 a) 4-5 b) 8-9

 c) 3-4 d) 6-7

 3 What is the desirable soil temperature for good bottle gourd growth?

 a) 35-40°C b) 10-15°C

 c) 18°-22°C d) 40-45°C

1 Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis is the botanical name of

 a) Cabbage c) Cauliflower

 b) Knol-Khol d) None of these

 2 Cauliflower was introduced in India in 1822 by ________ from Garden, London.

 a) Dr. Jemson b) Dr. Kalloo

 c) Herbalist Dodens d) None of these

One ofthe biggest issues the world is facing today is the lack of clean and pure water. Due to rising water demands, rigid health regulations, and xenobiotic pollutants, traditional wastewater treatment technologies cannot provide safe water. The present era necessitates innovative approaches to wastewater treatment technologies and improved water resource conservation and management materials. By utilizing innovative nanomaterial, nanotechnology guarantees a continuous provision of potable water and contributes to the preservation of water sources. Nanomaterials expedite rapid processes for the purification, conservation, and reuse of wastewater, complementing other enduring industrial methods. 

Nanotechnology holds immense promise in bolstering environmental protection and sustainability by revolutionizing approaches to monitoring, addressing, and amending environmental pollutants. This paradigm shift extends to resource conservation and energy efficiency through the innovation of more adept technologies. Yet, as we harness the potential of nanotechnology, it is of prime importance to meticulously evaluate its environmental and health implications, instating stringent measures to mitigate risks. Responsible and sustainable development, coupled with effective regulation, is imperative.

Agriculture serve as a backbone in improving economic growth of a country as well as it provides a base in meeting various needs of people in direct and indirect ways. The recent advancement in nanotechnology has shown a path to develop traditional agriculture into a sustainable practice. Several nanochemicals emerged as promising agents for better plant growth, used as fertilizer, pesticides, control weeds and also used as antimicrobial agents in food packaging. Nanotechnology may act as sensor for checking soil health of agriculture fields.

Over the years synthetic pesticides like herbicides, insecticides nematicides etc. have been used to improve crop yield. Indiscriminate application of pesticides ultimately leads to their excess discharge into water bodies during rainfall and causes death of fish and other aquatic life. Also consumption of seafood/fishes may cause biomagnification of chemicals in human body and leads to several lethal diseases like cancer, diabetes, neurodegenerative disorders like Parkinson, Alzheimer, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), birth defects and reproductive disorders. Likewise synthetic pesticides also damage soil texture, soil microbes and soil fertility. Their residues enter into plants and animal systems and further move into animals or humans body through food chain.

Nanotechnology epitomizes one of the most dynamic and transformative fields in modern science and technology. This multidisciplinary domain bridges chemistry, physics, biology, along with engineering, enabling the creation of materials and devices with extraordinary properties and applications. The book chapter reflects the research and patenting trends in nanotechnology. USA leading the global share for most patents granted followed by South Korea, Japan, China and Germany for the top five spots contributing more than 76% of all the granted patents by EPO & USPTO related to nanotechnology. Nanotechnological products in relation to sub-industrial areas of medicine, food, agriculture, cosmetics, environment, and renewable energies are also highlighted in chapter. 

9.1 Introduction

Water is essential for all life and used in many different ways. It is an important part of the ecosystem in which the reproduction of the bio diversity also depends. Fresh water scarcity for agriculture, industry and household purpose is not only limited to the arid climatic regions, but also in areas having high rainfall. Water scarcity is caused by low water storage capacity, low infiltration rate, high evaporation demand and larger inter annual and annual fluctuations of precipitation.

8.1 Introduction

Conservation agriculture (CA) is an approach to regenerative agriculture and land management practices based on three interlinked principles: (1) continuous minimum mechanical soil disturbance using no-tillage or reduced tillage based crop cultivation, (2) maintenance of permanent soil cover using crop residues and cover crops and (3) diversification of cropping system using economically, environmentally and socially adapted crop rotation including legume crops and cover crops coupled with other complementary agronomic management practices (FAO, 2014).

7.1 What is Soil Moisture Conservation Technique?

In situ soil moisture conservation means capturing rain water and retaining it in soil for utilization by plants for better growth and increase in biomass and grain yield. This is achieved through rain water harvesting on farm or field where crops are planted to get benefit from the conserved rainwater. It reduces rainwater loss through runoff and increases rain water infiltration time, thereby increasing the amount of rain water in the soil that will be useful for crop production.

6.1 Introduction

The birth of modern conventional agriculture coincides with industrial revolution. The identification of N, P and K as critical factors in plant growth led to the manufacture of synthetic fertilizers. While chemical fertilizers and pesticides have existed since the 19th century, their use grew significantly in the early 20 century with the invention of Haber-Bosch method for synthesizing ammonia. The rapid farm mechanization, especially in the form of tractor and combine harvester coupled with science-driven innovative management methods and resources led to the efficiency of enabling outputs of high quality produce per unit area and time.

5.1 Introduction

Indian agriculture is now at crossroads. We have come a long way. Over the past five decades our strategies, policies and actions were guided by goals of ‘self sufficiency’ in foodgrain production with main focus on rice and wheat. Indian agriculture has been successful in achieving higher production of food grains to secure food security of the nation. While, the success for increasing food grain production has been achieved without major jump in the production and productivity of pulses in the country, this was accompanied by widespread problems of resource degradation, which now poses serious challenges to meet the demands of an increasing population and lifting our people above the poverty line.

4.1 Introduction

Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is a major food security crop in South Asia, with 42% of the wheat in this region grown following rice (Oryza sativa L.) on 13.5 million hectares of land. Resource-conserving technologies offer considerable potential for improving the sustainability and productivity of wheat in the rice-wheat system of South Asia. These include raising input use efficiency, cutting costs, providing various environmental benefits, and ultimately improving farmer livelihoods and helping to reduce poverty.

3.1 Introduction

Rice is the main staple food for most of the world’s population and plays a key role to maintain food security of many countries. More than 90% of the rice production globally comes from Asia and also more than 90% of rice consumption is done in Asia (IRRI, 1997). In Asia, more than two billion people get almost 60-70 percent of their daily energy requirement from rice and its products (Yogeswari and Porpavai, 2018). As for India, since independence the country has witnessed a remarkable progress in rice production.

2.1 Introduction

Present day agriculture is facing more challenges like negative impacts of climate change, depletion of natural resources, increase of input costs etc. The major causes for steady decline in agricultural sustainability include intensive cultivation with conventional tillage practices, reduction of soil organic matter, soil loss by water and wind erosion, reduction in infiltration rate, formation of soil crust and continuous practice of mono-cropping. Over the years, soil and water resources are continuously overexploited leading to reduction in use efficiency of irrigation and energy.

1.1 Introduction

Broadcasting seed and harvesting meagre yields was a common method of ancient agriculture. High use of developed crop varieties, irrigation, chemical fertilizers, pesticides and farm mechanization is the main thrust of modern agriculture. Therefore, modern agriculture is an energy intensive farming system (Khan et al., 2010). Though modern technology based agriculture is achieving success to meet food demand of increasing global population, yet it creates many environmental issues such as loss of soil fertility, salinization and water scarcity.

The hazardous toxic metals like cadmium (Cd), arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), and chromium (Cr), which have detrimental health effects, are naturally discharged into the atmosphere in various ways viz., industrial wastes, anthropogenic sources, etc. Heavy metal pollution of the atmosphere has become a frightening ecological concern that has created serious threats to the ecosystem. These metals have been identified as group I, human carcinogens due to their persistence in the surroundings and bio-magnification in biological systems. Thus, the removal of heavy metals from the atmosphere becomes a serious matter from the biological and environmental point of view. In the past following techniques adoptedfor toxic heavy metals remediation were classified are bioadsorption, ion exchange, membrane filtration, flotation, and solvent extraction techniques.

The increase in population and global industrialization has led to environmental pollution, which is a significant threat to the health of the ecological system. Different measures are recommended to remediate polluted areas effectively. The applications of nanotechnology in medicine, cosmetics, sports, textiles, and pharmaceuticals have increased over the years. Another approach to remediate the adverse effects of pollutants on the environment is by utilizing nanotechnology for contaminant remediation. Biogenic nanoparticles are tiny particles produced by biological entities such as fungi, bacteria, yeast, and algae. These biogenic nanoparticles are efficient in removing pollutants like heavy metals, pharmaceutical waste, dyes, and hydrocarbon waste. 

Nanotechnology has emerged as a revolutionary force in the food industry, providing innovative solutions to improve food quality, safety, and usefulness. Researchers have devised novel ways to numerous issues in food production and preservation by harnessing nanoparticles' unique traits, such as their high surface area-to-volume ratio and customizable physicochemical characteristics. Nanotechnology-enabled food additives provide a wide range of benefits, including improved texture, taste, color, and nutritional value, as well as increased shelf life and microbiological safety. Furthermore, nanoparticles are effective transporters for bioactive chemicals, allowing for targeted and regulated release within the food matrix.

Nanotechnology has been successfully applied in various fields such as agriculture, biochemistry and medicine. However, its application in food systems has been new and is yet to be scrutinised. It offers a range of physical and chemical benefits that can be employed in production, development, fabrication, packaging, storage and food distribution systems. These novel nanomaterials such as nanocapsules, nanocomposites, nanoemulsions, nanoencapsulation, nano packaging, nanotubes and nanosensors have been used to improve food quality with better shelf life. However, there is concern about the safety of these nanomaterials, especially because of partial knowledge about the effects of these materials on human health.

The main objective of nanomedicine broadly defined as the comprehensive monitoring, repairing and improvement of all human biological systems, working from the molecular level using engineered devices and nanostructures to achieve medical benefit. Nanomedicine is the nanomachine of diagnosing, treating, and preventing disease and traumatic injury, relieving pain, and of preserving and improving human health, using molecular tools and molecular knowledge of the human body. Nanotechnology applications in medical science can be essential in achieving this goal. These applications involves extensive surveillance, control, creation, repair, and defence of all biological human systems, employing designed nanodevices and nanostructures which works in molecular level.

Despite substantial advances in the diagnostics and treatment of diseases, parasitic infections are a major global health issue causing significant mortality and morbidity. Currently, chemotherapeutic antiprotozoal drugs, anthelmintic and anti-ectoparasitic agents are used to treat, but resistance to these drugs has developed due to overuse. In this scenario, nanoparticles are proving a major breakthrough in the treatment and control of parasitic diseases. In the last decade, there has been enormous development in the field of nano medicine for parasitic control. Gold and silver nanoparticles have shown promising results in the treatments of various types ofparasitic infections. These nanoparticles are synthesized through the use of various conventional and molecular technologies and have shown great efficacy. 

Nanomedicine, an interdisciplinary field at the intersection of nanotechnology and medicine, has emerged as a promising avenue for addressing complex health challenges. One area of significant interest is the application of nanotechnology in maintaining and improving gut health. This chapter provides a concise overview of the current state of research in nanomedicine's role in promoting gastrointestinal well-being.

Nanoparticles, with their unique physicochemical properties, offer novel approaches for targeted drug delivery, imaging, and diagnostics in the gastrointestinal tract. Engineered nanoparticles can navigate the harsh conditions of the digestive system, delivering therapeutic agents precisely to the intended sites within the gut.

Synthesis of nanoparticulate metal composites (NMCP) presents a multitude of advantages compared to conventional dosage forms. Acne, a multifactorial skin condition, predominantly involves the pilosebaceous unit and is primarily caused by bacterial species such as Propionibacterium acnes and Acne vulgaris. A staggering 95% of the global population is afflicted by acne. Leveragitng NMCP strategies holds immense promise for innovating novel, efficacious, and low-dose treatments for managing acne. This review delves into various nanotechnological methodologies tailored for effectively addressing acne. Methods: This review encompasses recent advancements pertaining to NMCP carriers aimed at treating acne.

Nanomaterials, a cornerstone of nanotechnology, encompass a broad array of particles showcasing remarkable properties and diverse applications. This chapter outlines the classifications and applications of various nanomaterials, including organic, semiconductor, metal, metal oxide, and carbon-based nanoparticles. Each type offers unique characteristics, such as biodegradability, optical and electrical properties, making them valuable in fields like drug delivery, electronics, and catalysis. Furthermore, this study focuses on the interactions of nanoparticles with living organisms, emphasizing their impact on immune systems across plants, invertebrates, and humans. 

This section explores how nanoparticles have a significant influence on sensing and detection, explaining how they have revolutionized analytical capabilities. Our trip through many kinds of nanomaterials, such as metal nanoparticles, semiconductor nanomaterials, and carbon-based structures, aims to explore their distinct features and how they might be used for novel sensing methods. The intricacies behind sophisticated sensor technologies are clarified through an examination of plasmonic sensing, quantum dot applications, and conductive nanomaterial responses. In order to improve selectivity, the chapter emphasises surface modifications and biomimetic coatings as key components of strategic functionalization techniques.

Nanomaterials have emerged as promising candidates for revolutionizing sensing and detection technologies, offering unprecedented capabilities in sensitivity, selectivity, and miniaturization. The current chapter provides a concise overview of recent advancements in the utilization of nanomaterials for sensing and detection applications. It encompasses a diverse range of nanomaterials, including nanoparticles, nanotubes, and nanowires, each exhibiting unique properties that enable enhanced performance in sensing applications. The integration of nanomaterials into sensing platforms has demonstrated remarkable progress in various fields, such as environmental monitoring, healthcare diagnostics & security applications.

Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectroscopy (SERS) may detect and identify chemical and biological species ultrasensitively. Through localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) effects, metal nanostructures boost analyte Raman signals. This chapter covers current advances and essential principles in metal nanostructures for SERS chemical detection. It discusses SERS fundamentals and enhancing processes, such as metal nanostructure size, shape, and composition. Top-down and bottom-up processes including lithography, chemical synthesis, and self-assembly are used to create repeatable and controllable metal nanostructures. The complex interactions between light, metal nanostructures, and analyte molecules are best understood by combining theoretical modeling and experimental observations. 

Nanomaterials are a rapidly growing technological sector with diverse applications. These nanomaterials are categorized into distinct groups according to their shape, size, and materials used in their fabrication. The synthesis of nanomaterials follows different strategies that are tailored to their specific applications. This chapter describes the different approaches used for the synthesis of nanomaterials, including top-down, bottom-up, and hybrid approaches. Furthermore, this chapter discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each fabrication method and explores the diverse applications of nanomaterials across multiple fields.

Survival strategies of some plants help them to thrive in any adverse environmental conditions. We classify them as weeds or ruderals. Such weedy species have developed unique and effective physiological traits to withstand various stresses, and unique mechanisms to regulate growth under adverse environments. Climate change is a harsh reality observed in different parts of the world which brings new challenges in crop production and weed management.

Introduction of biotechnological tools in weed science and management has given new dimensions to weed research.

Indian tea has a global reach being the second largest tea producer in the world. Indian tea is one of the finest in the world. Darjeeling tea is the first product to get a geographical indicator tag in India. 83 % of the tea produced in India is from Assam and West Bengal and 17% from the south Indian states of Kerala, Karnataka and Tamilnadu. Weeds are a major problem in tea gardens.

Weed flora

Drymaria cordata, Bidens pilosa,, Cynodon dactylon, Panicum repens, Celosia argentea, Ageratum conyzoides, Centella asiatica, Borreria hispida, Oxalis latifolia, Mikania micrantha, Paspalam conjugatum,

Rice is the primary food source for half of the Asian population. Nearly 2,000 million in this region obtain 60 to 70 per cent of their calories from rice and its products. Considering the importance of the crop, United Nations General Assembly declared 2004 as the “International Year of Rice” (IYR). In India, the crop covers one-fourth of the total cropped area. About half of the Indian population use rice as their staple food.

Rice based cropping systems are not only important for food security but also for maintaing an ecological balance. Low land rice fields conserve water and prevent runoff .They preserve the sustainability of the ecosystem.

Parasitic weeds are a major constraint in tropical agriculture. These are plants that are adapted to live on other plants sharing their nutrients and water. They constitute 1% of flowering plants, approximately 3000 - 5000 species coming under 20 families. Parasitic weeds from five families viz. Orobanchaceae, Convolvulaceae, Santalaceae, Scrophulariaceae and Loranthaceae are considered troublesome weeds as they infest economically important crops in many parts of the world and are very difficult to control by normal weed management measures.

A major portion of the earth’s surface is water. Apart from the oceans, major water bodies on the earth’s surface include rivers, streams, lakes, ponds and canals. Plants adapted to these ecosystems form the aquatic species. When they pose a problem to navigation, fisheries and agriculture and also cause health hazards, they are categorised as aquatic weeds. Problems due to aquatic weeds has been reported from different parts of the world. They are common in warm waters. In Florida, it is reported that water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) covers nearly 40,000 hectares of water resources.

When a herbicide is applied to the soil, it is subjected to various interactions with soil and surrounding environment which ultimately determines its persistence. Dissipation of these compounds from soil system is by three main processes viz., physical (volatilization, leaching and runoff), chemical (photochemical decomposition, adsorption by organic and inorganic colloids and chemical decomposition) and biological (microbial decomposition and plant uptake) 

1. Physical Processes

a) Volatilisation

Major advantage of chemical herbicides over other methods of weed control is its ease of application, which saves the cost of labour for the farmer. Effectiveness of herbicide depends on how long it remains in active form in the plant /soil. The form in which any herbicide is available in the market is known as herbicide formulation. The technical active ingredient (ai.) of the herbicide is converted to a formulations so as to improve easiness of handling, retention on leaf surface, absorption and movement in the plant. Herbicides are available in different formulations.

In a cropping systems there may be simultaneous or sequential application of herbicides, insecticides, fungicides, fertilizers, PGR during a single cropping season. The different chemicals will undergo physical and chemical changes as they interact with plant, soil and other chemical substances already applied to the plant or soil. The interaction effect of such chemical substances will be visible only at the later end of the cropping season. The responses observed in the plants can be.

Herbicides have received wide acceptance from farmers mainly due to ease of application and effectiveness. After application, herbicide molecules should penetrate plant tissue and get translocated to the target site. Once they reach the target protein they bind to them and disturb metabolic processes in plants by disrupting biosynthetic pathways and damaging cell structures by generating cytotoxic molecules that ultimately kill the plants. In this, the first step is penetration of herbicide into the plant system.

Effectiveness of spray mixtures can be increased by addition of adjuvants. Weed Science Society of America (WSSA1994) have defined adjuvant as a material in a herbicide formulation or added to the spray tank to modify herbicidal activity or application characteristics. Adjuvants enhance activity of a herbicide in different ways viz., wetting, spreading, deposit building, emulsifying or deflocculating the active ingredient. In many cases cost of adjuvant will be less than that of active ingredient. In such cases it helps to reduce the cost of the final product.

A large number of herbicides are currently available in the market hence selection of suitable herbicide needs judicious understanding of the product and the requirement. When large number of chemical options are available it can make the process of selection a bit confusing. So it is important to know the crops in which a herbicide can be used, the weeds it will control, the appropriate rate, adjuvants included in the formulation. The different uses of the chemical and the different situations for which it will be useful. In addition to these it is important to understand the mode of action of the herbicide and also the mechanism of action of the chemical.

Herbicides are chemical substances that are capable of either killing or injuring plants and so used for elimination of unwanted plants. In Latin, the term ‘herba' means plant and ‘caedere’ means to kill. There are many reasons for the increased use of chemicals for weed control. Shortage and high cost of agricultural labour prevent economic control of weeds by manual and mechanical means. Benefits offered by herbicides include efficient weed control, higher crop yield, better soil, water and energy conservation and higher income.

Deliberate use of natural enemies to control invasive pest in an ecosystem is known as biocontrol. To control invasive weed species, selective pathogens and weed seed predators are employed to reduce the population of the weed to non competitive numbers rather than total eradication of the weed species (Appleby, 2005) These can be insects, herbivorous fish, other animals, disease causing organisms or even competitive plants. This method is comparatively safer to the ecosystem, is cheaper and has long lasting impact. Difficulty in f inding host specific bio-agent with minimum adverse effect on other crop and the environment is a challenge.

Weeds have been a problem to agriculture ever sine man started cultivation. Weed species by and large invade cropped areas and account for large economic losses to the farmer. Weeds are economically more important than insects, fungi or other pest organisms (Savary et al. 2000, 2006). Globally, weeds cause the highest potential loss to crop production (34%), with animal pests and pathogens being less important (losses of18% and 16% respectively). The loss in production due to weeds has been estimated as 5% in developed countries. It is around 10% in developing countries and 25% in least developed countries. (Oerke, 2006)

Weeds have specific characters which helps them to adapt to any stressful situation and successfully, compete with the crop. They have survival strategies which help them to overcome vagaries of nature like extreme cold, heat, drought, biotic stresses and soil abnormalities. Their most important characteristic is the ability to succeed in any adverse situation even in disturbed soils. The age old war between man and weeds makes it pertinent to understand the characteristics of weeds which make them better competitors in the field.

Weeds are diverse plant species of the ecosystem which can survive adverse condition and reproduce quickly. The global compendium of plants has listed 28000 species as weeds. According to Holm et al (1977) about 8000 weeds species have been reported from agricultural fields in 124 countries and of these, 250 species are considered to be problematic. It is also to be noted that weeds from 12 families constitute 68% of the world’s worst weeds. Within these 12 families, weeds from poaceae, asteraceae and cyperaceae constitute 44% of the world’s worst weeds.

India is basically an agrarian economy where 57.8% of rural households are engaged in agriculture (Situation Assessment Survey of Agricultural Household, 2021). 48.9 per cent of the Indian work force is employed in the agricultural sector, (ILO, 2016). The estimated Indian population for the year 2050 is 1.7 billion which will raise our food demand to ∼400 million tonnes (Rao et al., 2018). In this context, Indian agricultural production system will have to take up the challenge to feed l7.5% of the global population with only 2.4% of land and 4% of the available water resources at its disposal.

Introduction

A geographical information system (GIS) is a kind of database that has software tools for handling, analyzing, and presenting spatial data and descriptions of phenomena that have a location component. This system can also involve human users and support staff, procedures and workflows, a body of knowledge about relevant concepts and methods, and institutional organizations in a wider sense. GIS technology is a key part of spatial data infrastructure, which the White House describes as “the policies, technologies, standards, human resources, and related activities that are necessary to acquire, process, distribute, use, maintain, and preserve spatial data.”