eChapters

Present day hydrogeomorphological research is the explanation of landscape and landforms: what they are, how they function and have developed with reference to the hydrological conditions. Research is a much more complex undertaking than giving names to landforms or even the study of processes, both in terms of what we mean by process and how explanations are approached. It is worthwhile examining some reasons for this, as it shows the increasing complexity of the subject and lead to ideas of how hydrogeomorphology can be studied. Here are some of the fundamentals required for hydrogeomorphological studies:

Mechanism and Processes

‘Mechanism’ provides explanations in detail by describing physical or chemical effects. ‘Process’ signifies the integration of mechanisms in time. Thus, for example when we talk about ‘fluvial process’ or, more specifically, about the ‘mechanism of saltation’, then we have to discuss about the energy source and processes of carrying the material. A process can thus be viewed as the simultaneous operation of a set of specific mechanisms over a specific time period.

Surface Water Resources

Surface water is a general term describing any water body which is found flowing or standing on the surface, such as streams, rivers, ponds, lakes and reservoirs. Surface water originates from various combinations of sources:

1. Direct precipitation - rainfall which falls directly in the surface water body;
2. Surface runoff - rainfall which has fallen onto the surrounding land and that flows directly over the surface into the water body;
3. Interflow - excess soil moisture which is constantly draining into water body; and
4. Water table discharge - where there is an aquifer below the water body and the water table is high enough, the water will discharge directly from the aquifer into the water body.

The quality and quantity of surface water depends on a combination of climate and geological factors. The recent pattern of rainfall, for example, is important in enclosed water bodies such as lakes and reservoirs where water is collected over a long period and stored. The water storage in streams and rivers is in a constant stage of movement and depend on the weather conditions.

An aquifer is a geologic formation, a part of a formation, or a group of formations that will yield water. The quantity of ground water that an aquifer will yield to wells depends partly on its thickness, extent, continuity, and homogeneity, and partly on its physical properties of permeability and porosity.

Groundwater is stored in subsurface void spaces below the water table. The geologic material that stores, transmits, and yields groundwater to wells and springs are called aquifers. The key word here is yields. To be an aquifer, it must store and transmit water at rates fast enough to supply reasonable amounts to wells and springs. Therefore, not all groundwater is stored in an aquifer. Productive aquifers can be comprised of sand and gravel, sandstone, limestone and dolomite, or basalt flows, whereas fractured igneous or metamorphic rocks are only marginal aquifers.

The classifications of aquifer are given below:

Groundwater exists at many places beneath the surface of the earth. It is normally hidden from view but, on occasion, can be seen flowing from springs and wells or seeping into tunnels. Certain properties of the various geologic materials control the ability of groundwater to enter into, move through, be stored in, or be extracted from the ground. Therefore, an understanding of geology is necessary in order to gain an understanding of groundwater found within a particular area of investigation. A basic part of the study of the geology of an area includes the preparation of a map showing surfacial exposures of each rock type. Interpretation of the map facilitates the study of the underground configuration, characteristics, and physical properties of these materials. This, in turn, enables the evaluation of groundwater storage, movement, and yield, as well as the identification of areas of ground water quality problems, recharge, and extraction.

The fundamental unit of a geologic study is the geologic formation. A formation has been defined as any assemblage of rocks, which have some character in common, whether of origin, age, or composition. In this sense, the term “rock” is defined as any naturally occurring part of the earth’s crust, made up of aggregate of minerals and includes hard, dense granite, lava ash, clay, sand, and even loose-uncohesive soil.

Application of the principal of geomorphology provides information, which will be of value in predicating the geometry of aquifers. On weathering and erosion, many geological formations develop landforms that are distinctive in respect of slope continuity of outcrops and symmetry of valley flanks. The surface topographic features of bedrocks can some times be extrapolated to reasonable depths to predict the thickness of alluvium or aeolian sands occurring as valley fill deposits, by treating slope profile as mathematical curves for which equations similar to regression equations can be found (Doornkamp and King, 1971).

The influence of tectonic movements and resultant structural features on landform is of paramount importance for hydrogeomorphologists. The control of structure on landforms and hydrogeological processes are being discussed here. The structural geology concerns with the features such as uniclinal or inclined beds, folds, faults and joints. Of these the structural features like faults, fractures, joints etc appear as linear feature.

Linear features on the surface of the earth have attracted the attention of geologists for over one hundred years. This interest has grown most rapidly since the introduction of aerial photographs into geological studies. Geologists have recently proven that various structural features perceived in remotely sensed images are reliable indicators of geologic resources (Caran et al, 1982). These structures have been used in many applications: petroleum and mineral exploration (Blanchet, 1957); nuclear energy facility siting (Seay, 1979); geothermal assessments (Woodruff et al, 1982); and water resource investigations (Lattman and Parizek, 1964). Lattman and Parizek (1964) established a relationship between the occurrence of groundwater and fracture traces for carbonate aquifers, and in particular zones of localized weathering and increased permeability and porosity underlying these structures.

Geomorphometric analysis is the measurement of the threedimensional geometry of landforms and has traditionally been applied to watersheds, drainages, hill slopes, beaches, and other groupings of terrain features. In particular basin morphometric parameters have received a lot of attention from hydrologists and geomorphologists since watersheds (catchments) have been used for analysis of various physical ecosystem processes, including soil erosion, deposition, runoff, stream discharge, sediment yield, sedimentation of streams, irradiation by sunlight, evaporation, evapotranspiration, and nutrient distribution. The study of morphometric parameters, which include variables such as average basin slope, the basin elongation ratio, compactness ratio, basin relief and stream density. Some parameters, such as slope length or stream sinuosity, can be used to represent both basin and hill slope, or basin and stream channel properties.

The main task before geomorphologists is to use an ideal unit of the earth surface for the study of its landforms. The search for an ideal areal unit, within which the collection, processing, organization and interpretation of the data of the geometry of landform, particularly of erosional origin can be made has been the main aim of the geomorphologists right from Fennemen (1914), Horton (1932 and 1945), Strahler (1956 and 1957), Miller (1953), Chorley (1957), Schumm (1956), Shreve (1966), Singh (1981), Sarkar (1995), Schumm and Spitz (1996), Sharma and Amin (1996), Iqbaluddin et al (1997) and Raj et al (1999).

The beginning of the 20^th century was heralded by methodological revolution in geomorphological studies brought in by Davis (1899). His classical model of geographical cycle defined by him ‘ as a period of time during which and uplifted landmass undergoes its transformation by the process of land sculpture ending into a low featureless plain (peneplain)’ dominated the geomorphological investigations all over the world throughout 1^st half of the 20^th century.

The statistical techniques by Horton (1932 and 1945) brought quantitative revolution in the field of geomorphology when he presented quantitative analysis of morphometric characteristics of fluvially originated drainage basin. Post 1950 geomorphology has undergone vast change in the methods and approaches to the study of landforms, conceptual framework, paradigm and thrust areas of study. The most outstanding contribution to the advancement of geomorphological knowledge in this period is the adoption of quantitative approach based on deductive scientific method to the study of landforms and processes at short spatial and temporal scales (Strahler, 1956 and Schumm, 1956).

Several attempts have been made in the world in past to classify large territories and landforms into morpho-units. Valuable contributions pertaining to landform analysis have been summarized below: Joerg (1914) subdivided North America into natural regions, Fenneman (1914) established physiographic boundaries and gave physiographic divisions of the United States, whereas Anderson (1941) gave physiographic divisions of Columbia plateau. Howard and Spock (1940) and Weaver (1965) presented the excellent ways of classification of the landforms while Wood and Snell (1960) applied the quantitative systems for the classification of the landforms. However, Linton (1951) and Hammond (1954 and 1965) gave techniques for mapping delineating small scale and large-scale landforms.

Water is a primary source of life and sustains all human activities such as domestic needs, agriculture, industries etc. The allocation and management of water resources is becoming a difficult task due to increasing demands, decreasing supply and diminishing quality. This calls for judicious use of water resources. The geomorphology describes the environment in which the hydrological processes operate. A strong mutual correlation exists between geomorphological variables and hydrological characteristics. Such relationship can be applied to both surface and groundwater regime. Thus the linking of geomorphological parameters with hydrological characteristics of the basin provides a simple way to understand the hydrogeomorphological behaviour of different basins and particularly of un-gauged basins.

During the last few years various applications of hydrogeomorphology with reference to the Geographic Information System (GIS) and various other techniques have emerged as an extensively effective tool for analyzing and prioritizing natural resource management alternatives. Because natural resource management problems are spatial in nature the GIS technology provides a tool for defining the extent of the problem, and facilitates the design and implementation of alternative management strategies. The GIS is used to estimate the hydrogeomorphological parameters of the watershed, which can be used in watershed planning and management at micro and macro levels. The results of the study can be utilized to infer the hydrological features like runoff potential, infiltration and groundwater recharge of the region. Some of the applications of hydrogeomorphological studies are described below:

New techniques and approaches to groundwater studies are always in deep concern with the hydrogeomorphologists. The designing of new techniques or adapting existing techniques with better enhancement to solve practical problems in the study of groundwater are of central concern. One of the recent technical developments include the mathematical model of groundwater flow that has become the most widely used computer-based model in the groundwater industry. Techniques to identify and date recently recharged water that is useful in characterizing the susceptibility of hydrogeologic environments to contamination are utilized by various research groups all over the world.

Geophysical methods for determining the hydraulic properties of fractured rocks gained the importance in the hydrogeomorphic studies. Predicting the movement of water and contaminants through fractured rocks has been one of the most challenging problems in hydrogeomorphology. Besides conventional and above mentioned techniques the techniques discussed in this chapter are Remote Sensing, Geographical Informational system (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), Digital Elevation Model (DEM), Groundwater Information System (GWIS), Digital Surface Terrain Modelling (DSTM), Multicriteria evaluation (MCE) and Thermal Infra Red (TIR) Mapping and Microwave Data.

Common groundwater investigations include necessary considerations of the system’s influx sources, flow regime, discharge points and geomorphological characteristics of the area. Often, hydrogeomorphological mapping of an area is required as to determine these characteristics. The primary data can be acquired from the survey of India toposheet map and the satellite images. The secondary data set includes the satellite imageries, the preparation of digital elevation model (DEM) and digitized precipitation maps.

The first step in the procedure of hydrogeomorphological mapping is to calculate the watershed/basin area, which serves as a mask to define the area of interest. The watershed/basin calculation relies on the digital elevation data and assumes that topographic aspect (dip direction of the cell surface) completely controls the extent to which surface flow emanating from each point in the study area can reach the low point in the valley. The calculation of the potential annual recharge of the aquifer combines techniques described above with data for recharge areas, DEM aspect, and precipitation. First, the catchment area of the recharge zones must be calculated in a process similar to the watershed analysis, returning the area associated with the catchment coded as “1”. A simple multiplication overlay with the precipitation data and the catchment areas yields a result giving the amount of precipitation for each catchment cell. Before using the precipitation data, we converted it to meters so as to keep units consistent. The precipitation amounts within the catchment area (i.e. each cell value) are to be summed, yielding the amount of water available for influx into the groundwater system. Finally precipitation per year data can be acquired.

Identifying surface areas of groundwater discharge is based on the observation that such areas provide a relatively constant source of moisture, which is readily exploited by vegetation in semi-arid region. Thus areas with year-round green vegetation are assumed to be indicators of discharge. The relative amount of vegetation in a scene can be estimated by calculating a vegetation index (Reddy et al, 1989 and Tucker 1979).

The world is head98ing towards a water crisis. Africa and West Asia are likely to be worst affected by water scarcity, but with increasing population, water may fall short even in the other parts of the world. According to the recent UN report, the supply of clean and fresh water is depleting at such an alarming rate in some regions, that within 30 years, about two third of population will suffer moderate to severe water stress.

In hydrogeomorphological context of social environment the water is an essential natural resource for sustaining life. The available water resources are under tremendous pressure due to increased demands. The time is not far when water, which is the free gift of nature, will become a scare commodity. Therefore, conservation and preservation of water resources are urgently required to be done at priority basis. Water management has always been practiced in our communities since ancient times. But such practices have faded away during the past few decades mainly due to lack awareness. Hydrogeologists feel that the water harvesting practices must be urgently implemented to overcome the problem of water crises. In India the Ministry of water Resources is endeavouring to make rainwater harvesting a part of every day life in villages and cities as a people’s movement. Hydrogeomorphological aspect of social environment include (a) Social - Cultural -Administrative Consideration (b) Education and Training in Hydrogeology for Professionals and Technicians (c) Education for Farmers and Women (d) Education for Masses. These are described as below:

This is a branch of veterinary science that deals with the biology of animal when they are in good health condition, disease status and also deals with the selection of the laboratory animal, important care to be taken and also the usage of these laboratory animals in experiment and also for other research activities.

IMPORTANCE / SCOPE FOR STUDY

Veterinarian with special training/ advanced training in laboratory animal medicine and management are required by medical school, pharmaceutical industries, private and government organization, hospitals, research institutes.

This field of veterinary science has become highly dynamic and it provides good opportunities to satisfy academic professional career.

Usage of these laboratory animals goes back to 2^nd Century. However, the systematic and systemic usage came into existence a century back when research workers started working on polio vaccine. Since then, a debate is going on between scientists of different organizations regarding the usage of laboratory animals.

All scientists working with laboratory animals must have a deep ethical consideration for the animals they are dealing with. From the ethical point of view it is important that such considerations are taken care at the individual level, at Institutional level and finally at the national level.

Individually each investigator has an obligation to abide by all the ethical guidelines laid down in this regard at institutional level. The Head of the institution, maintaining animals for scientific experiments , should constitute an animal ethics committee on animal experimentation to ensure that all experiments conducted on animals are rational , do not cause undue pain or suffering to the animals and only minimum number of animals are used. The constitution and term of reference of the animal ethic committee should be well defined.

An animal ethic committee should include: a senior biological scientist of the institute, two scientists from different biological disciplines, a veterinarian involved in care of animals, the scientist in charge of animal facility, a scientist from outside the institute & a nonscientific socially aware member. A specialist may be co-opted while reviewing special projects using hazardous agents such as radioactive substance and deadly micro-organisms etc. The investigator may be called in for any clarification if required.

The ethics committee has to examine all projects involving use of animals before implementation, to ensure that minimum number of animals is used in the project and the ethical guidelines are strictly adhered to. It will also examine that the scientists and technicians handling animals possess adequate skill to perform the experiment. All animals should be maintained under standard living conditions and experiments will be conducted under proper anesthesia and termination of an experiment, the animal will be humanely sacrificed under anesthesia. Before disposal it must be ensured that the animal is clinically dead.

CLASSIFICATION

• Wistar albino
• Sprague Dawley
• Long Evans
• Charles

Wistar Albino

Wistar albino is common strain found in most laboratories and used extensively for research. They have the following characteristics: (i) Less resistance of inflammation, (ii) No incidence of spontaneous tumor.

Sprague Dawley

Rabbits: Housed in mesh floor cages made of galvanized iron, aluminium or steel.

Cleaning should be done regularly (but not within the animal room). Clean feed, water should be given to animals to keep them free of diseases.

Guinea pig: In case of guinea pig, environmental factors play a very important role → Temperature, relative humidity, lighting and ventilation.

Temp → 18-21°C for all laboratory animals

Relative Humidity → 45-55%

Lighting → 12-16 hours for normal physiological activity.

Ventilation → Min 12-15 changes of air for animal room. This can be provided with the help of exhaust fan.

For guinea pig, temperature should not go beyond 30°C, because they cannot dissipate heat from body and they suffer from heat stress and heat frustration because they have loose fold of skin. Highly susceptible for respiratory infection, so adequate ventilation should be given.

They can be housed on wire mesh, floor, and cages. Also directly on floor provided with bedding material → paddy/ ragi straw. In some animal facilities they give saw dust as bedding material. For Guinea Pig saw dust should be given as bedding material as they get adhered to vulva that causes irritation and also it blocks the vulva. There will be reduction in fecundity of the animal →worst

Proper records can be maintained and individual performance can be noted.

Disadvantages: A number of males should be maintained which is not economical.

Advantages of polygamous mating: Economical because 1 male can be used for 4-5 females. We can use postpartum estrus effectively.

Immediately after parturition after 7 days they come to heat. Breeding can be done 7 days after parturition after separating the young ones. [Weaning age 21 days]

But this is usually not followed because the number of young ones born reduces subsequently.

Disadvantages: Proper records cannot be maintained.

Mice are omnivores and can be fed with commercial feeds like pellets or fed with mixed feed which is locally available cereal, pulses and grains.

However, nutritionally requirement of mice

Carbohydrates - 45-55%

Protein - 16- 24%

Fibre - 4-5%

Fat - 4-6%

Supplement vitamin and minerals.

GUINEA PIGS

Guinea Pigs are herbivores and they can be fed with green grass, vegetable wastes, sprouted grains and commercially available diet and diets made of locally available cereals, pulses. Guinea Pig are not able to synthesize vitamin C. So it has to be supplemented externally through diet and supplementation should be 120 mg of body weight.

Guinea Pig are highly fastidious animals (strict about their diet and their requirement i.e., they are choosy in their diet).

Minimum Requirement

Pr - 16-20%

Fat - 4%

CHO - 30-35%

Fibre - about 10%

Extension worker play a important role in rabbit keeping. It increases food production and experience in rabbit farming, people has to be educated as they have no knowledge of rabbit keeping especially people of towns and villages.

These have to be told the advantages of rabbitry. It is difficult to convince villagers, so extension is very important.

Rabbit Census : Recently taken up.

In Karnataka, census was taken in 1990. There were 16,327 animals.

Buck can be mated to several does not gives many young ones. So quality of buck will be passed on to many number of young one. Choose bucks whose relatives have good commercial character performance can be known by looking at breeding record should have too well development testicle, have good growth, good healthy condition, not be too fat, good physical condition.

Best time is when animal is 2 kgs of body weight and age of 3-4 months.

It is advisable to purchase buck from good reliable source since it brings new characteristics and avoid inbreeding.

The mating of the buck of particular breed with die of another breed is cross breeding usually cross breeding has better commercial value → Hybrids which has hybrid vigour → grow faster, better litter size.

Usually breeding of 2 hybrid is not advisable because we will not be sure which hybrid characteristics will be passed on to young ones.

The back yard rabbitry has mixed breeding programme of low quality with reference to commercial characteristics. To improve back yard rabbitry, good well known breeding buck should be introduced to have better performance.

CARE AND MANAGEMENT

Pregnant female should be fed with green, fresh vegetable, green leaves. Only with good management, healthy young ones can be expected. Similar to birds, rabbits have Nest building behaviour. Around 25 days of pregnancy, keep the pregnant animal in cage provided with bedding material separately. Around 28 days, the female makes nest by pulling the fur from abdominal region and also bedding material. The fur from abdominal region is pulled to make teats clean for young ones to suck milk. If female makes good nest, it can be concluded that it will be a good mother. Some females due to disturbance are unable to make nest and also abandon young ones, go astray.

Act of parturition in rabbit is kindling and it takes place in early hours of day and late evenings. Full process is completed in 90 minutes. In some females, aggressive behaviour is seen. Such aggressive females have good mothering ability.

DISEASES OF RABBITS

The Disease Occurrence in rabbit colony is minimal if good sanitation and hygiene measures are followed.

Diseases are caused by Bacteria, Viral, Parasitic and managemental.

Bacterial Disease

Pasteurellosis → similar to Haemorrahgic septicaemia

Organism → Pasterurella multocida

Affects respiratory system with difficulty in breathing. Temperature 103 ° F Occulonasal discharge observed.

Lab → Blood smear shows bipolar organisms by Giemsa stain.

Treatment → Sulpha drugs, long acting tetracyclines.

Mainly reared for wool production. They require cooler environment to have better wool growth. The rearing is restricted to hilly regions where the weather is cool which helps in better wool production.

• Qualitative
• Quantitative

Quality-Length of the wool, texture of wool, shininess/ brightness of wool.

During marketing, classified into 3 categories:

Grade I → Rs. 1000/ kg

Grade II → Rs. 600-800

Grade III → Rs. 400-600

Dogs, Cats and birds are pet animals.

Chromosome number of dogs-78

Good Angora breed yield wool of 2-2 ½ “ an average. On record, 8” of wool is also obtained.

HOUSING

Dogs are kept in cages and they are tied with a chain in one corner of the house or left free in the house → but hair falling will be seen throughout → allergy.

House in wire mesh all round and wooden flooring → gives warmth to animal. Roof can be made of asbestos sheet.

Cage → 2 ft LX 3 ft BX4 ft H. This should be kept in a cool place.

With cement covering all round with mesh door asbestos roofing.

Dog is always chained. This should be long enough and strong enough to withstand pulling of animal. Along with this collar is provided with strong buckles.

Docile animals can be left free in the house → Pomerian, Dash hound, Dobberman should be chained.

Petting too much leads to transmission of diseases → parasite and allergy.

Adult female is called bitch and adult male is called dog.

Female comes to heat which is called season. Comes to season for first time at 6-8 months of age. Smaller breeds mature faster than large breeds.

SYMPTOMS OF HEAT

Females in heat becomes nuisance to both owner and public since the animal becomes unmanageable, goes out of house and sometimes street male dogs gets into house because of peculiar pheromone smell.

Has different stages

LICENSE, REGISTRATION & INSURANCE FOR DOGS

To keep dog, license from local Municipality or Panchayat. Only when certified for vaccination against rabies is shown, license is given to rear dog.

Registeration of Pups

Pups from the registered parent should be registered as soon as it is born.

Pups should be registered with Kennel club. Registered usually where parents are registered. Immediately after the birth, pup should be registered.

Dog Show

Most registered Kennel clubs conduct Dog show. They allow the dog to participate only if it is registered with the club. Usually Kennel club avoid prizes to animal. To give prize, they should have the following classification :

CATS

Cats are classified under family Felidae. Felidae is divided into 3 sub families.

False sabes (Toothed cats)

Felids (Cats → Felinae)

Big felids (Pantherine)

Felinae

28 species, have been classified in 15 genera.

Chromosome no 2n=38.

Exterior Morphology of Cats

MANAGEMENT

Management includes housing, feeding, disease control.

India is rich in bird population → 8650 species distributed through more than 2000 species are found in India alone. This is due to diversity of habitat and favourable climate condition.

Birds population is restricted to Rajasthan and Himalayan region i.e., in desert, hilly region, forest and also in grass lands → habitat.

Diversity of habitat → mentioned in Rig Vedic period. Even people are distributed among different regions.

IDENTIFICATION OF BODY PARTS

Objectives

To become familiar with external parts of the body

Physical examination

Administration of medicine or substances
Oral administration : can be done with the help of syringes or stomach Tube. In large animals, mouth gag is used before passing stomach tube.

HANDLING OF ANIMALS

Objectives

• For carrying or shifting the animal
  Sexing the animal – to know the sexing of animal.
• Administration of substances
  To conduct experiments.

Materials required – Laboratory animals, apron, tattle and clean towel, weighing balance.

HOUSING OF LABORATORY ANIMALS

Objectives

The important criteria to be kept in mind for the construction of animal house are:

• Got to satisfy the requirements of animal care takers and animal technician whose place of work it is.
• Got to satisfy animals which are house in animal house.
• Research workers who conduct research on animal in the laboratory should be satisfied.

Materials required- Small animal house, Animal colonies, type of cages and equipments.

IDENTIFICATION OF ANIMALS

It has been in practice since long, not recent item in livestock farming. In earlier day’s in Egyptian era, people used to mark the animal to identify their animals. But in recent days, due to development in bio-medical science where usage of animal has increased within turn has become necessary to establish a suitable identification method for various species of animal. There are many methods available to identified animal, however the methods employed should be simple, economical and easy to identify animal and should be harmless to animal, quickly applicable and should be suitable to experiment conducted.

RECORD KEEPING

Objectives

• To carry out the routine activities of animal house
• Breeding of animals

Materials required- Different types of record

Proper record keeping is very important and it is also highly essential to carry out the animal house activity in a systematic manner. The records should be simple, complete and should preferably be computer compatible.

The records are kept and maintained in different forms. Unnecessary information should be avoided in these records. The records of breeding, experimental animal and morality of animals are highly essential. Other records are:

COMPOSITION OF DIET

Objectives

• To study the general considerations on feeding aspects of laboratory animals.
• To get acquainted with the specific nutritional requirements of laboratory manures.
• To familiarize with the watering system.
• To know the daily feed schedule of different species of laboratory animal.

Materials Required

Laboratory animals, feed ingredients, water, green vegetables.

For having good growth and production, proper balanced diet should be fed, thus nutrients can be classified into 6 classes:

Objectives

• To keep the laboratory animal house neat and clean
• To maintain healthy stock

The disease may be bacterial, viral, fungal or of parasitic origin. All the measures taken to reduce growth and also to control spread of pathogenic organism is a sanitary measure like ventilation, building without cracks crevices.

Important aspect of good sanitation is insect control or pest control. Most effective measure is to just chase them out. To achieve this :

Objectives

To acquaint with the various methods of sterilization and disinfection used in laboratory animals.

Materials Required

Boiler, autoclave, hot air oven, chemical disinfection.

Sterilization

It is a process of the complete removal or destruction of living organisms including viruses, vegetative forms and spores. Sterilization is an absolute term. Nothing can be “partially sterile’’, either, it is or it is ‘not’. An article must be protected from recontamination after sterilization.

Committee recognized throughout world on laboratory animal called International Committee on Laboratory Animal (ICLA) This committee is responsible to make the rules and regulations and laws which governs production, maintenance and usage of laboratory animal. This committee has defined Specific Pathogen Free (SPF) animal which are free of specified micro organisms and parasites but not necessarily free of the ones which are not specified. Example pasteurella free SPF animal.

Synonyms of SPF Animals

• Disease free animal
• Healthy animal
• Pathogen free animal
• Clean animal
• Caesarian derived animal

The main aim for the production of GFA is for isolation of animal free of all organism.

Introduction

Germfree (GF) animal is one which is isolated from all demonstrable living microorganisms like bacteria, virus, fungus, parasite, algae, yeast. The aim of GF work is isolation (Prevent contamination from air, water, food and environment). It can be attained mechanically and scientifically. GF animal research began in 1895 but in 1897 Nuttall and Thierfelder started to rear GF guinea pigs in their lab. Chicks are classical animal for GF research. Rats and mice are reared through reproduction. Permanent breeding colonies of these have been established.

Synonyms : Axenic animal –meaning free from strange. Gnotobiotic – known life derived from Greek word-Gnoto & biota means known flora & fauna.

Gnotobiote (Gnotobiotic animal ) : Is an animal derived by aseptic caesarian or sterile tatching of eggs that is restored & continuously maintained with Germ free technique under isolator condition in which flora & fauna is clearly defined.

Flora animal: A gnotobiote maintained under isolator condition in international association with one or more known types of microorganisms.

Important by product from Rabbit are meat, wool, planner and skin. It can be made highly profitable if products are properly processed and marketed. Many rabbit products are wasted because people do not have enough knowledge about their processing. Rabbit farming is profitable preservation of its by-product.

Slaughtering: Know when and how.

Slaining: Familiar with how to remove skin and carcass preparation and processing. How the skin has to be processed into a product from the skin obtained.

Manure: Know how to collect and preserve it.

INTRODUCTION

Rabbit production is the upcoming livestock farming throughout the world. The domestic rabbit are raised meat, fur –skins and wool. Climatic condition of Karnataka are not favourable for raising wool breeds of rabbits, but are definitely well for broiler rabbit production.

Rabbits require less space for housing and highly prolific. Initial investment for rabbits farming is very less and maintenance cost is also very low. There is no religious barriers in rabbit meet consumption and rabbit meat contains very low cholesterol when compared to the other meats.

Rabbit farming can be very well fit into mixed farming systems. It can be adopted by small and marginal for maximum utilization of lands and resources, and to derive substantial income under rural condition.

ETHICS OF ANIMAL USE IN RESEARCH

• The use of animals in scientific research is a controversial issue. Animals have been used throughout the history for anatomical and physiological research as well as for testing toxic substances.
• Many medical advances, including vaccines for polio and rabies, the development of certain antibiotics, anti cancer agents and transplant medicine have been developed by using animals in research.
• But the question is whether it is right or wrong to use animals for these purposes.
• All scientists working with laboratory animals must have a deep ethical consideration for the animals they are dealing with.
• From the ethical point of view it is important that such considerations are taken care at the individual level, at institutional level and finally at the national level.

What are Ethics ?

Accurately in the clinical diagnosis of a disease in experimental animals frequently depends on the result of laboratory examination of blood specimen from the diseased animals. A prerequisite for good experiment result is the proper collection and handling of the blood samples. If properly collected samples can not be sent to the laboratory quickly. It must be preserved or stored in such a manner that the necessary tests may be conducted. The technician/researchers

Going to collect the blood from a laboratory animal should be aware of the purpose of blood collection, the sites of blood collection, the technique of blood collection, the Use of various anti coagulants, the techniques of blood examination.

Blood Examination of Animal may be Necessary

Reproductive is fundamental property of living beings. While lower animals reproduce by simple methods, the higher animals attain greater degree of animals reproduce by complexities in the reproductive functions. Basic units (Gonads) of males and females are testis and ovaries respectively. The gonads of each sex perform dual roles:

• Formation of gametes (sperms by testis and ovum by the ovaries)
• Production of hormones.

Role of Hormones in Reproduction

The term Anesthesia means loss of sensation.

GENERAL ANESTHESIA

In the technique of anesthesia, a drug is capable of causing loss of sensation together with loss of consciousness, sufficient to allow a surgical operation to be carried out.

Routes of General Anesthesia (G.A.)
Inhalation

Ether, Nitrous oxide, Halothane, Chloroform etc.

NATIONAL LEVEL FACILITIES OF LABORATORY ANIMALS

• National Laboratory Animal Centre, Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow.
• National Centre for Laboratory Animal Sciences (NCLAS) National Institute of Nutrition, Hyderabad

INSTITUTIONAL LABORATORY ANIMAL FACILITIES AT

A Overview

Genetics is a branch of biology concerned with heredity and variation.

Genes are the unit of inheritance and are composed of DNA.

The effects of genes are noticeable at the molecular, cellular, family, and population levels.

Genes are DNA sequences that instruct cells to produce particular proteins, which in turn determine traits.

Genes can exist in more than one form and the variants of a gene arise by mutation.

An allele is a variant of a gene that alters its expression in a detectable way. Alleles can be dominant or recessive.

A polymorphism is a particular sequence of DNA that varies in one percent or more of the population.

Single nucleotide polymorphisms are single base pair sites that differ among individuals.

Chromosomes consist of genes and associated proteins.

The human genome consists of 22 pairs of autosomes and one pair of sex chromosomes.

A karyotype is the photographic catalog of the human chromosomes.

Specialized cells and tissues arise by differentiation from the stem cells of the early embryo.

Pedigree diagrams enable recessive and dominant traits to be followed through multiple generations of a family.

A gene pool is the collection of alleles in a population.

Comparative genomics is leading to a more detailed and subtle understanding of evolutionary relationships among species

Cells are the Working Units of Life

With the possible exception of viruses, every form of life on Earth either is a cell or composed of cells. All cells come into existence through the activity of other cells.

All Cells are either Prokaryotic or Eukaryotic

All cells can be classified as prokaryotic or eukaryotic. All plants, animals, fungi, and protists are either single eukaryotic cells or are composed of eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are either bacteria or archaea. Eukaryotic cells have most of their DNA contained in a membrane-lined nucleus, whereas prokaryotic cells do not have a nucleus. Eukaryotic cells also have more specialized structures, called organelles, than do prokaryotic cells. All prokaryotes are single-celled, whereas many eukaryotes are multi-celled.

The Eukaryotic Cell

There are five principal components to the eukaryotic animal cell: the nucleus, other organelles, the cytosol, the cytoskeleton, and the plasma membrane. Organelles are “tiny organs” within the cell that carry out specialized functions, such as energy transfer and material recycling. The cytosol is the fluid in which these organelles are immersed (The cytoplasm is the region of the cell inside the plasma membrane but outside the nucleus.) The cytoskeleton is composed of several groups of proteins that give the cell support and facilitate transportation of cellular elements. The plasma membrane is the chemically active outer boundary of the animal cell. Plant cells have a plasma membrane that has, outside of it, a cell wall.

About Mendel

Born in what is now the Czeck Republic.

Grew up in an agricultural environment.

Became a priest-teacher at a local monastery.

Took courses in botany, physics, and mathematics at the University of Vienna.

Gregor Mendel was the first person to comprehend some of the most basic principles of genetics. He reached these understandings in the mid-nineteenth century; working in what is now the Czech Republic and using as his experimental subjects a species of garden pea, Pisum sativum..

Carried out “hybridization” experiments with the common garden pea.

Mendel’s hypotheses became the laws of inheritance in modern genetics.

Mendel’s work re-discovered by Correns, DeVries, and Tschermak in 1900. Period of modern “Mendelian” genetics begin.

When Gene Expression Appears to Alter Mendelian Ratios Lethal Allele Combinations

Us recessive lethal alleles eliminaters a progeny class. Multiple Alleles

A gene can have more than two alleles, but a diploid individual only has one or two of them.

Different allele combinations can produce different phenotypes and different severities of symptoms.

Different Dominance Relationships

Incomplete dominance of an allele produces a phenotype in the heterozygote that is intermediate between that of either homozygote.

Codominant alleles are both expressed in a heterozygote. Epistasis-When One Gene Affects Expression of Another

In epistasis, one gene masks the effect of another. An example of epistasis in humans is the Bombay phenotype.

The Bombay phenotype results in O type blood for individuals homozygous recessive for the recessive “h” allele.