eChapters

Soil is the outer loose layer of earth consisting of layers of mineral material (regolith) whose properties differ from one another and these differences are largely due to the variation in biological activities. Soil micro-environment principally comprizes of inorganic particulates (sand, silt and clay) plus certain oxides and hydroxides, plant roots, organic matter, microbial biomass and aqueous and gaseous phases. The uneven distribution of these components provides a great variety of conditions from field to micropores. The interaction of physical and chemical factors contributes to the creation of varied soil habitat and hence determines the composition and activity of soil biota at a particular site and time. Over geological times, microorganisms have had great opportunity to become distributed worldwide. Such growth and development of microorganisms as well as species diversity is of considerable significance. The existing geographic distribution is reflective of long term adaptation of microorganisms to the various environmental conditions. The preferred environment of an organism is usually referred as ‘habitat’.

The vegetables and fruits are largely consumed fresh and day by day, their market demand is increasing due to nutritious quality. However, market supply is not sufficient to meet public demand throughout the year as production is inadequate because crop production has not increased substantially in recent years due to climatic changes. Another important reason for low production is the economic losses incurred due to damages of insect pests and plant diseases.

Since ancient times, reduction in pest and disease incidence is sought by spraying of pesticides including conventional preparations such as tobacco decoction, Bordeaux mixture, neem leaf extract etc. During the green revolution years, the synthetic pesticides were greatly recommended for pest and disease control and thereby increasing crop yields many-fold. Having experienced the spectacular improvement in both yield and quality of marketable produce, farmers were solely dependent on synthetics and ultimately abandoned other control measures.

Pesticides are an undeniable part of modern life, used to protect everything from flower gardens to agricultural crops from specific pests. Pesticides have contributed significantly to improving quality of life and safeguarding the environment. Some 20 to 40 percent of the world’s potential crop production is already lost annually because of the effects of weeds, pests and diseases (according to the FAO reports) (www.CropLifeAmerica.mht). In addition to increasing crop yields, crop protection products used in stored products can also prolong the viable life of products, prevent huge post-harvest losses from pests and diseases and protect food safety for eating.

Introduction

It is a well known fact that agricultural pests cause substantial crop losses throughout the world. In the past farmers had to manage this problem to secure their basic subsistence needs, and as a response, the farmers practiced and developed cultural and mechanical pest control based on trial and error. Over a period of time, these practices have become a part of their production management system. The first known chemical control dates back to 2,500 years. From the late 1800s to 1940s, the main insecticidal compounds used were oils, soaps and resins, plant-derived poisons and inorganic compounds. The chemical age began in the 1940s with the discovery of dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane (insecticide), ferbam (fungicide), and 2, 4-D (herbicide) (Arneson and Losey, 1997). In 1940s and 1950s, pesticides were thought to be the final word in pest control and their introduction contributed substantially to raising agricultural productivity in many regions of the world. Since then, pesticides have become an integral component of many intensive agricultural systems. Repeated applications of pesticides lead to resistance in the pest (Beaument, 1993). This resistance results in the increased application of pesticides and to the collapse of the agricultural systems characterized by highly resistant pests, with no natural enemies left to control them. Pesticides have been found to causeacute and chronic human health problems, contamination of groundwater, surface water, atmospheric contamination, and negative effects on non-target organisms (Mullen, 1995). Concerns about the negative effects of pesticides led to research and promotion of alternative pest control practices – Integrated Pest Control or simply IPC. This new concept called Integrated Pest Control (IPC) and later Integrated Pest Management (IPM) was stimulated by symposia organized by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations in 1966. IPM made a paradigm shift in the philosophy of pest control, from pest eradication to pest management. Instead of single tactic control, emphasis was placed on the use of a combination of available tactics in a compatible manner aimed at providing cheap, long term sustainability with minimum of harmful side effect and controls the pest at ETL level.

4.1 Biomass Energy Resource

Among the various methods for producing electricity, biomass is one of the most common. This method uses animal waste, wood pellets, etc. to produce electricity. The use of biomass energy has proven beneficial over time and has the potential to be both reliable and consistent as an alternative energy source.

Organic matter is simply referred to as biomass. Or, to put it another way, biomass is anything living or ever living, including animal waste, crop waste, garden trash, etc. As a result, biomass renewable energy is the energy produced during the use of biomass. Biomass derives and stores its energy from the sun, which is absorbed by plants through a process known as photosynthesis. Plants contain chemical energy that is passed to animals and then eaten by people. Various plant and animal products, including sugarcane, corn crops, wood chips, and even dung, can be utilised. These substances, also referred to as feedstocks, are converted into a biomass fuel.

Soybean, a source of 40 per cent good quality protein, 20 per cent oil and other nutrients has great potential in meeting nutritional requirements and extending health benefits through soy based food products to Indian population. Soy foods are nutritious, economical and good for health. Regular food use of about 10 per cent processed soybean flour with cereal flours or 25-30 g properly processed soybean per day in a diet entitles the consumer to derive maximum nutritional and health benefits at a relatively low-price. Soy food products like fullfatsoyflour, soy-based bakery products and dairy analogs (soy milk, soy paneer (tofu), curd (dahi), soyshrikhand, soy amrakhand), being the products of acceptable type to Indian population, have good scope. Different organizations have given input in R&D work on soybean processing. SPU Centre at ICAR-CIAE, Bhopal has been involved in development of number of soybased food products, technology and equipment for preparation of those. To make available the properly processed soy food products to our population, the centre is actively engaged in capacity building of upcoming entrepreneurs and entreprise development for soybean processing for food uses. Around 500 cottage scale soy food enterprises have been established in different states of the country.

Abstract

Whenever human beings come together and interact, there are bound to be conflicts. It is the struggle between individuals or groups or organizations for values, status, power or scare resources, that creates tension and frustration. It cannot be totally eliminated, it has to be managed. Positive conflicts sometimes lead to innovations or new directions of thinking in the Research and Development (R&D) environment. But negative conflicts mainly breed unproductiveness, a climate of distrust and suspicion, antagonism, and neglect of organizational goals. Conflict arises due to one of the three reasons : unacceptability, uncertainty and incomparability of alternatives. The problem of unacceptability arises when the most preferred alternative is not found to be acceptable. Uncertainty arises when the individual faces problem to select one from the alternatives. The incomparability dilemma is a situation where the decision maker does not have standards to compare alternatives. Modern managers must be equipped to deal with different types of conflict and devise strategies to resolve them. This chapter deals with conflicts at individual level, at group level or at organizational level, their resolution through negotiation or collaboration, models and methods for managing conflicts, etc in details. A healthy organization climate can unblock creative potential of its employees, streamlining and facilitating efforts for the good of the organization and its employees.

Hippeastrums, commonly known as Royal Dutch amaryllis/ Trumplet lily/ Belladonna lily, are bulbous ornamentals grown around the world for cut flowers, potted plants, window gardens and floral arrangements. The numerous hybrid phenotypes (miniature, orchid flowering, imbricated/ reginae, long trumpet/ belladonna type, etc.) are available in the world market. The history of its development and new trends of breeding are described as an aid for continued crop development. Tissue banks of cultivars are genetic evolutionary race history have been charted out for future improvement. Most cultivars are diploids and tetraploids cross incompatibility, sterility, reproductive barriers, self incompatibility often pose significant challenges to breeders. Little genetic information and trait heritability has been established for this crop, plant breeding continues to produce new variants for commercial production. The use of intra and interspecific hybridization, breeding for specific traits, polyploidy and mutation breeding are presented with a focus on creating novel transformations for this crop in the future.

5.1 Waste Treatment and Disposal

Source reduction and feeding the hungry are significant considerations for decreasing avoidable food waste. However, non-edible wastes like livestock manure, agricultural wastes, and unusable food wastes are also classified as organic wastes. The environment and general public’s health may be seriously endangered by improper treatment of these wastes. Wastes can contaminate surface and ground waterways by runoff or leaching if they contain pathogens, chemicals, antibiotics, and nutrients. The breakdown of organic waste also results in the production of methane. As is well known, methane is a powerful greenhouse gas that captures more heat into the atmosphere than carbon dioxide. It is possible to remove organic waste and turn it into biogas, a sustainable energy source that can be utilised to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and the likelihood of stream pollution. Further emission reductions are made possible by replacing fossil fuels with biogas, sometimes leading to carbon-negative systems.

Brinjal (Solanum melongena Linn.) is one of the widely used vegetable crops and is popular in many countries viz. Central, South and South-East Asia, some part of Africa and Central America (Gurubban, 1977). It is also known as the aubergine, eggplant, melongene, guinea squash etc. Various data indicate that from the several species that evolved in Africa, one (Solanum incanum), gave rise to a distinct species which spread to South-East Asia as the wild ancestor of Solanum melongena (Lester, 1998). It was domesticated in India from the species Solanum incanum and India or Indo-China region is recognized as the centre of the eggplant diversity (Vavilov, 1951). Solanum melongena is a delicate, tropical perennial often cultivated as an annual in temperate climates. The fruit is botanically classified as a berry and contains numerous small, soft seeds which are edible, but have a bitter taste because they contain nicotinoid alkaloids. This is unsurprising as it is a close relative of tobacco.

Introduction

The kidneys play a vital role in maintaining water and electrolyte balance (such as chloride, potassium, calcium, hydrogen, magnesium, and phosphate ions). It also regulates the acid-base balance of the blood, arterial blood pressure, and osmotic pressure of the nd water-soluble waste products, which are removed from the bloodstream by the kidneys and excreted as urine. Normally, the kidneys receive about 22% of the cardiac output. According to Arthur Cushny (1866-1926), there are three steps involved in urine formation in the nephrons: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. When the kidneys are injured, their regulatory activities are disrupted, resulting in a change in the quality and quantity of urine. Urine is composed of the following components:

This is the reason why a urine analysis is a common test to evaluate the pathophysiology of the urinary system in general and the kidneys in particular, as well as to aid in the differential diagnosis of certain diseases.

Haemostasis refers to the physiological process that prevents blood loss following vascular injury while maintaining fluid blood flow within the vascular system. It involves a complex interplay between the vascular endothelium, platelets, coagulation factors, and fibrinolytic proteins. In animals, laboratory tests for haemostasis play a critical role in diagnosing bleeding disorders, monitoring treatment, and investigating hypercoagulable states. This article discusses the principles, applications, and limitations of laboratory tests used to assess haemostasis in animals.
In veterinary medicine, laboratory tests for haemostasis are essential diagnostic tools for identifying bleeding disorders, hypercoagulable states, and monitoring therapeutic interventions. They are crucial in both emergency and routine clinical settings for animals. These tests provide insights into the functionality of primary haemostasis (platelet plug formation), secondary haemostasis (coagulation cascade and fibrin clot formation), and tertiary haemostasis (fibrinolysis and clot breakdown).

The planet earth harbors a total population of 7,530,687,482 (as on 7^th September 2017 at 1345hrs) in which Asia and Africa share 4,486,207,286 and 1,252,251,830, respectively. In majority of the countries in Asia and Africa surveillance programs for detection and source tracking of human health hazard bacteria in foods is scant and in some cases do not exist. Hence, the task is much more complicated especially catering to needs of food, nutritional security and microbial safety of foods of more than 5,738,459,116 or 76.2 % of the total population of the world. The continued occurrence of foodborne illness is not evidence of the failure of our food safety system. In fact, many of our prevention and control efforts have been and continue to be highly effective. In advanced countries like US where food supply is one of the safest in the world, however, significant food borne illness continues do occur. Despite great strides in the area of microbiological food safety, much remains to be done.

Food-borne disease outbreaks are defined as the occurrence of 2 or more cases of a similar illness resulting from ingestion of a common food or observed number of cases of a particular disease exceeds the expected number. These can be confirmed (when at least one causal agent is identified) or suspected (based on clinical and epidemiological information). Although most cases are sporadic, these diseases draw attention to themselves due to outbreaks, thorough investigation of which can help in identifying control measures.Annual burden of foodborne diseases in the WHO South- East Asia Region includes more than: 150 million illness, 175 000 deaths, 12 million DALYs (Source: FERG Report 2010).

12.1. INTRODUCTION

Air is polluted when it contains enough unhealthy particles and gases to harm human beings, animals, plants and even objects such as building and statues. Air pollutant may present as solid, liquid or gas form. Industrial revaluation in the 19th and 20th centuries leads faster increase in concentration of air pollutants in the atmosphere. The most important air pollutants that damage the plants’ growth and development, subsequently the economic yields of crop plants are ozone (O₃), nitrous oxides (NO₂ and NO), carbon monoxide (CO), ammonia (NH₄), peroxiacetyl nitrate (PAN), sulphur dioxide (SO₂), hydrogen fluorides (HF), particulate matters (cement dust, magnesium-lime dust, carbon shoot etc.), smoke etc. Burning of hydrocarbons in motor vehicle engines gives rise to CO₂, CO, SO₂, and NO in varying proportions and ethylene (C₂H₄) as well as other hydrocarbons. Industrial plants release SO₂, H₂S, NO₂ and HF into atmosphere. Hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) is another potentially injurious molecule, can form by the reaction between O₃ and naturally release volatiles (terpenes) from forest trees.

Abstract: Bougainvilleas are morphologically diverse and admired for their ornamental value. The considerable diversity exists in bougainvillea species for leaf shape, degree of hairiness, bract colour, spine shape and blooming. These attributes have enabled the ornamental bougainvillea to be used as pot plants, hedge, pergola, standard and bonsai for display. Currently, there are many intra and interspecific hybrid cultivars and numerous mutations from numerous species in the market. Limited fertility, heterozygous nature, strong self incompatibility and seed sterility often pose significant challenge to breeders. Traits of interest to flower breeders for crop transformation include; plant architecture, flower timing, colour diversity, multibracts and multicolour in single variety, environmental adaptation to stressful condition (cold tolerance, heat tolerance, drought tolerance, etc.).

Abstract

The softer rock types belonging to Tertiary period, intense deformation and the related more frequent tectonic weak planes, high degree of weathering and extensive road cutting are the inherent systems in provoking Landslides in Noney-Nungba segment of NH-53 in the state of Manipur. So Landslide Hazard Zonation mapping was carried out in this segment using BIS method and also geotechnical investigations were carried out in Awang Khull part-II slide and Raungdai slide and on the basis of type of failure and the morphotectonic conditions mitigation strategies were suggested.

F0 value: It is used to express F-value when z =10oC / 18oF and the temperature is 121.1oC. It is the number of minutes at a specific temperature (250oC) required to destroy or kill a stated number of microorganisms and has specific z-value. It is also called reference value.

Facing or lining board: The layer of the paper on which the flute is embedded is called facing or lining board (Plate 258).

Facultative anaerobic: Organisms that grow either with or without oxygen.

Facultative parasites: Facultative parasites can adapt to live on dead organic matter and often have a wide host range and can easily be cultured on artificial media. These organisms may be aerobic or anaerobic but under changed conditions, they changes to anaerobic or aerobic.

Falling rate period: It is that part of the drying process during which the drying rate varies with time and the instantaneous drying rate per unit surface or weight of dry material continuously decreases. Falling rate takes place when most of the moisture has been evaporated during constant rate period. The falling rate period during dehydration take place in the final stage of dehydration when the food commodities have large amount of free water available for evaporation. Here, rate of removal of the moisture from the food to the surrounding is continuously decreasing / falling per unit time.

Cow Based Formulations describes traditional agricultural preparations made from cow-derived materials and other locally available ingredients for soil fertility, pest management, disease management, crop growth, and stress management. The chapter covers Ghana Jeevamrutham, Jeevamrutha, Amruthajalam, Amudham solutions, buttermilk-based preparations, and microbial formulations for improving soil fertility. It also presents Neemastram, Agniastram, Brahmastram, Dashparni Kashayam, and related preparations for pest management, followed by BeejAmrutham, Beejaraksha, herbal teas, and other disease-management inputs. Panchagavya, fish amino acid, egg amino acid, vermiwash, and cow dung–asafoetida solution broaden the discussion toward growth promotion and stress management in natural farming. using locally accessible agricultural resources today.

Abstract

Buffalo is the second major source of milk supply in the world. India, Pakistan, China, Egypt, Nepal, Myanmar, Italy, Sri Lanka, Iran, and Turkey are the top ten countries of highest buffalo milk production. In Asian countries, Riverine buffalo is mostly used milk purpose breed. Buffalo milk is a plentiful source of nutrients including fat, protein, essential fatty acids, essential amino acids, lactose and beneficial oligosaccharides, indispensable fat and water soluble vitamins, vital minerals. It contains more total solids, fat, protein, lactose and calcium as compared to cow milk. Buffalo milk possesses wide potential to be used in the production of a range of dairy products. On account of the differences in physico-chemical and biochemical properties between buffalo and cow milk, conventional processing technology and equipment for cow milk may not be suitable for buffalo milk processing. Changes and modifications must be considered for making certain products. This chapter aims to highlight the nutritional profile including amino acid profile, lipid profile and mineral composition; physico-chemical properties and potential of buffalo milk in the dairy sector.