eChapters

    1.    Wohler (1828) synthesized the first organic compound, urea from inorganic components.

    2.    Emil Fischer (1894) demonstrated the specificity of enzymes and the lock and key relationship between enzyme and substrate.

    3.    Michaelis and Menten (1913) developed kinetic theory of enzyme action

    4.    Watson and Crick (1953) Proposed the double-helical model for DNA structure

    5.    Ingo potrykus (1999) Golden rice- rich in b-carotene.

    6.    Glyoxysomes : Glyoxysomes are temporary in that they occur during transient periods in the life cycle of a plant such as in certain beans and nuts which store fats in their seeds as energy reserves. Glyoxysomes appear in the first few days after seed germination in endosperm cells and associate closely with lipid bodies. They disappear after the storage fats are broken down and converted into carbohydrate.

In beginning of aerial photography, the photos were taken to evaluate existing topography, plan observation and sampling incursion. After World War II, the assessments of aerial photographic data were much more difficult, and real geological data started to be extracted. The use of stereoscopic pairs enabled geologist to explain height structural features. But, the basic use of remote sensing data were collected was in explanation. These trends of comparative photography until development took place into the satellite age when satellite imagery began popular and commercially available. The availability of various imageries in several combinations opened a option to analyze regions in much more detail. Apart from this, the multiple flying allowed a prospect to be viewed in various light during differnt seasons. The development drastically decreased the cost of regional exploration by minimizing repeated trips to a place for reassessing. This permitted data to be gathered from the tropics and arid regions that was previously difficult task in wide regional field exploration. As computer age progressed being developed and enhanced the value of data that allows imagery as digitally highlighted specific features. Ground features like differential cropping, drainage patterns, and folds/faults may be identified.

Plant–water relations concern how plants control the hydration of their cells, including the collection of water from the soil, its transport within the plant and its loss by evaporation from the leaves. Flow of water through plant and soil over macroscopic distances is driven by gradients in hydrostatic pressure. Over microscopic distances it is driven by gradients in water potential. Evaporation of water from leaves is primarily controlled by stomata, and if not made good by the flow of water from soil through the plant to the leaves, results in the plants wilting. Plant water deficit is initiated as the crop demand for water exceeds the supply. The capacity of plants to meet the demand and thus avoid water deficit depends on their “hydraulic machinery.” This machinery involves firstly the reduction of net radiation by canopy albedo, thus reflecting part of the energy load on the plant. Secondly, it determines the ability to transport sufficient amount of water from the soil to the atmosphere via the stomata in order to provide for transpiration, transpirational cooling and carbon assimilation. Water is transported by way the soil-plant-atmosphere continuum and it is largely controlled by the resistances in the continuum as determined by root, stem, leaf, stomata and cuticular hydraulic resistances. The gross effects of deficient and of excessive soil moisture on plant growth are well known, but controversy has existed for many years around the question whether the so-called “‘available moisture” is equally available for plant growth or available only with such increasing difficulty that plant growth functions are retarded before the wilting point is reached. Various measurable aspects of plant growth do not respond in the same manner to increasing moisture stress. Crops will respond to irrigations, although measured soil moisture stress is quite low. Problems of relating plant growth to soil moisture stress conditions varying with both time and soil depth are considered. Soil factors affecting density or depth are reviewed and several ways weather factors influence soil, -moisture-plant-growth relations summarized.

Introduction

Flowers are the most fascinating objects in the world and many poems are written glorifying them. They are associated with mankind from the dawn of civilization. Flowers are an integral part of our day to day life and they find a place in worshiping, religious and social functions, wedding, interior decoration and self adornment. Flowers are used to convey the human feelings. To say it with flowers is very common in western culture. Emergence of a strong middle class and changing life style has created a great demand for cut flowers in India.

8.1 Introduction

The knowledge of statistics and probability is very helpful for correct prediction of hydrological data and correct prediction of hydrological data is useful in giving good performance in all water resources projects. Since hydrological data are highly stochastic varying both in space and time, it is essential to predict them as correct as possible. The hydrologic evens do not depend on physical and chemical laws but depend entirely on nature. They cannot be predicted exactly by using any relationship but can be predicted at different probability levels by fitting suitable probability distribution functions. Application of statistics and probability in the field of hydrology can help to predict the hydrologic events in a better way. In hydrology, objectives of statistics are as follows (Suresh, 2008):

9. WEATHERING

The general process of production of rock waste partly by mechanical breaking and partly by chemical decomposition is known as weathering. The resulting products of weathering accumulate in the same place from which they are derived and there is no transport involved in the process.

Agents and types of weathering : The agencies which are involved in the process of weathering are atmosphere, water and organisms. The whole process of weathering may be conveniently divided into two types : mechanical or physical weathering and chemical weathering. Mechanical weathering involves those processes which bring about disintegration of rocks and minerals without any chemical activity. Chemical weathering involves various chemical processes which slowly decompose the rocks and minerals. In nature two processes are intimately associated and only under extreme conditions, they do occur as a separate entities. Mechanical weathering breaks down the rock creating more surface area and facilitates chemical weathering. Chemical weathering weakens the rock and makes it more susceptible to mechanical break down. Thus the two processes are always complementary to each other.

A. Diseases

1. Anthracnose

Occurrence & severity status

Anthracnose has a serious impact on yield and fibre quality of flax (Linum usitatissimum) and is well-known in Europe, Asia and America. Flax anthracnose increased in Germany when flax production was expanding in the 1930s (Rost 1938). The anthracnose pathogen is seed- and soilborne, causes damping off of flax seedlings (Rost 1938), and is one of the causal organisms of so-called flax-sick soils (Bolley & Manns 1932). It has been recorded in nearly every country where the crop is grown either for fibre or oil. It is known to occur in Belgium, the British Isles, Canada, Formosa, France, Germany, Holland, Japan, Latvia, Lithuania, New Zealand, Poland, U.S.A. and the U.S.S.R. (including Siberia), in most of which countries its incidence has resulted in appreciable crop losses (Muskett and Colhoun, 1947). The disease is most common in cool and humid flax-growing areas (Nyvall, 1989). The disease is destructive to the crop, especially when the seed source is contaminated by the fungus. It can spread rapidly under favourable conditions causing severe local epidemics and heavy losses in yield and quality of both fiber and seed (Mercer, 1992c; Rashid, 2003b). The losses of 50% in fibre yield in an epidemic year were reported by Muskett and Colhoun (1947). Ondrej (1985) indicated a considerable loss in fibre strength on attack by anthracnose.

After precipitation, run-off and surface water storage in lakes and man-made reservoirs, the next steps in the hydrological cycle are infiltration through the unsaturated zone and groundwater dynamics in the saturated zone. Well-established applications of isotopes in groundwater hydrology are

The practice of smoking the trees to induce off-season crops in mango is

A. Smudging      B. Bending

C. Ringing         D. Notching

Biological control is defined broadly as the “use of natural or modified organisms, genes, or gene products” to reduce the effects of pests and diseases. The many approaches to biological control can be categorized conventionally into regulation of the pest population (the classical approach); exclusionary systems of protection (a living barrier of microorganisms on the plant or animal that deters infection or pest attack) and systems of self-defense (resistance and immunization) (Anchal Sharma et al., 2013). The agents of biological control include the pest- or disease-agent itself (sterile males or a virulent strain of pathogens), antagonists or natural enemies, or the plant or animal managed or manipulated (immunized) to defend itself. Principles of plant health care are offered, know the production limits of the agro-ecosystem, rotate the crops, maintain soil organic master, use clean planting material, plant well-adapted, pest resistant cultivars, minimize environmental and nutritional stresses, maximize the effects of beneficial organisms and protect with pesticides as necessary.

Biological control is the control of one organism by another. This control may be expressed as either a longer population of the pest or as a restriction or prevention of the severity or incidence of pest damage without regard to the pest population (Cook and Baker, 1983). Biological control depends on knowledge of biological interactions at the ecosystem, organism, cellular, and molecular levers and often is more complicated to manage compared with physical and chemical methods. Biological control is also likely to be less spectacular than most physical or chemical controls but is usually also more stable and longer lasting. In spite of biological controls having been used in agriculture for centuries, as an industry biological control is still in its infancy. Biological control is now being considered for an increasing number of crops and managed ecosystems as the primary method of pest control. One reason for its growing popularity is its record of safety during the past 100 years considered as the era of modem biological control (Anchal Sharma et al., 2013). No microorganism or beneficial insect deliberately introduced or manipulated for biological control purposes has, itself, become a pest so far as can be determined, and there is no evidence so far of measurable or even negligible negative effects of biocontrol agents on the environment. The new tools of recombinant DNA technology, mathematical modeling, and computer technology combined with a continuation of the more classical approaches such as importation and release of natural enemies and improved germplasm, breeding, and field testing should quickly move bio-control research and technology into a new era.

11.1. History of Plant Quarantine in India

The first recorded plant quarantine measure in India dates back to 1906, when perceiving the danger of introducing the Mexican boll weevil, the Government of India directed that all cotton imported from the New World should only be admitted to India after fumigation with carbon disulphide at the port of entry.

In India two categories of regulatory measures are in operation for controlling pests, diseases and weeds. In the first category regulatory measures are aimed to prevent the introduction of exotic pests and diseases into the country or their spread from one State or Union Territory to another (Plant Quarantine). The second pertains to suppression or prevention of spread of pests and diseases in localized areas within a State or Union Territory.

The former derives its authority from the Destructive Insects and Pests (DIP) Act 1914 of the Central Government and the latter from Agricultural Pests and Diseases Acts of the various States. The legislative measures against crop pests and diseases were initiated under the DIP Act of 1914 which was passed by the then Governor General of India in Council on 3 February 1914.

Prior to the establishment of the Directorate of Plant Protection, Quarantine and Storage in 1946, under the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, the various rules and regulations of the DIP Act were enforced by the customs department. The quarantine regulations are operative through The Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 1914 (which has been revised 8 times from 1930 to 1956 and amended in 1967 and 1992).

Importance

Ginger is a perennial herbaceous monocotyledon, usually grown as annual, and is known to human as spice as well as medicinal crop. The word Zingiber is thought to come from the Sanskrit word singabera meaning ‘shaped like a horn’. It probably got its name because the rhizomes look like deer’s antlers. It first appeared in the writings of Confucius in the 5^th century B.C.

The economic part is the underground rhizomes, which is pungent and aromatic. It is valued for its medicinal properties and is useful against gastritis, dyspepsia, cold and cough. It is widely used in food, beverages, confectionery, etc. Baby ginger or young ginger results from early harvesting and is a gourmet quality product with a tender, low-fiber texture and is mostly used for pickling. Rhizome contains proteins, fibre, starch, essential oil, Zingiberol, Glutamic acid, Aspartic acid, Glucose, Fructose, and Sucrose. Most ginger varieties have about 3-6% crude fibre, 1.5-3.0% volatile oil and 4-10% oleoresin. The major pungent principle in ginger oleoresin is gingerol. Among the gingerols 6-gingerol, 8gingerol and 10-gingerol are very important in contributing the pungency. Gingerol (Hydroxy methoxy phenyl decanone) on storage gets converted to another compound called shogaol. The age of ginger oleoresin can be assessed based on the shogaol content. Chemically, gingerol is a relative of capsaicin, the compound that gives chilli its spiciness. Cooking ginger transforms gingerol into zingerone, which is less pungent and has a spicy-sweet aroma.

Soil physics is the study of soil’s physical properties and processes. Soil physics deals with the dynamics of physical soil components and their phases as solid, liquids, and gases. Physical properties of soil include texture, structure, density, porosity, consistency, temperature, colour and water content. The physical properties depend on the amount, size, shape and arrangement and mineral composition of its particles , kind and amount of organic matter and the volume and form of its pores and the way they are occupied by water, air at a particular time.

6.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the impact evaluation (summative) of the vegetable IPM programme that was conducted by the Central Integrated Pest Management Centre (CIPMC) Jammu in the sub-tropical areas of Jammu, Samba and Kathua districts. These districts were selected purposively as the maximum numbers of IPM-FFS were conducted by CIPMC in these three districts. Ex-post facto research design (with/without) was employed for conducting the impact evaluation of vegetable IPM-FFS programmes conducted between 2003-04 and 2007-08. This design uses a pre-existing situation as the treatment instead of actual manipulation of the variables. An ex post facto study uses a comparable site as the control to find the programme effects.

An Ex-post facto research is a systematic empirical inquiry in which the scientist does not have direct control of independent variables because their manifestations have already occurred or because they are inherently not manipulated. Inferences about relations among variables are made, without direct intervention, from co commitment variation of independent and dependent variables. This kind of research is based on a scientific and analytical examination of dependent and independent variables. Independent variables are studied in retrospect for seeking possible and plausible relations and the likely effects that the changes in independent variables produce on a single or a set of dependent variables. The ex-post facto design was also used by Peshin and Kalra (1998); Reddy (2006); Maraddi et al., (2007) while evaluating the IPM programmes. The indicators for evaluation of the IPM-FFS programme were selected based on the requirements of the research design.

Insect pests cause huge losses ranging from 5 to 80% of even up to 100%. Acute food shortage following world war –II and Bengal famine (1943) due to failure of rice crop due to a paddy disease indicate the severity of the loss, caused by the pests and diseases. The insects in storage on an average consume and spoil an additional 4 million tones of grains every year. All this indicates the importance of plant protection by which we can save millions of tones of food grains which are otherwise eaten away by different pests. Losses due to insect pests in Indian agriculture are 23.3 per cent. One of the practical means of increasing crop production is to minimize the pest associated losses.

A pest is any organism which occurs in large numbers and conflict with man’s welfare, convenience and profit.

Pests are often controlled with man made chemicals which have many harmful effects, for example:

The chromosomes provide physical basis by which genetical stability and continuity of individuals and populations are maintained in each generation. Chromosomes also play an important role to generate variation which is an essential component of evolutionary process. Although crossing over during meiosis is responsible for generation of variability, but structural changes in chromosome too are important for causing variation and evolution, since genetic and cytological analysis of individuals of related species or isolated populations within the species have shown that they may differ by various kinds of changes in their chromosomal structure. The structural changes usually may result from spontaneous chromosome breakage. But under normal condition/s such breakage is an rare event and its frequency is dependent upon environmental conditions, i.e., temperature, various high energy radiations (e.g. X, λ and β-rays) and some chemicals. Chromosome breakage is reported to be higher in some hybrids and in presence of particular genes. Certain chromosomes and chromosomal segments (centromeric and other heterochromatic regions) are more likely to undergo breakage. But stability and continuity of structural changes in the chromosomes depend on the behavior of the broken ends. There is no change if broken end rejoins at the same chromosome but a change may occur if it rejoins with the end of other chromosome or if remains unattached. In case of a pair of homologous chromosomes if one chromosome has any structural change and other one is normal we customarily call it a structural hybrid.

Definition of Breed

A breed is a group of animal’s related similar characters like general appearance, size, features and configuration etc. A group of individual which have certain common characteristicsthat distinguish them from other groups of individuals is known as Species.